Principles of social science; a survey of problems in American democracy

II Formerly Assistant Professor Of Economics And Sociology, Smith College

AND

EDGAR BRUCE WESLEY

HEAD OF SOCIAL STUDIES, UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

Problems are the growing pains of civilization , offering opportunities for personal achievement and pointing the way to national progress.

D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY

BOSTON

ATLANTA

NEW YORK SAN FRANCISCO LONDON

CHICAGO

DALLAS m

Copyright, 1932 , by Thames Ross Williamson and Edgar B. Wesley

No part of the material covered by this copyright may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

AUG

To

Two Young Americans

MEDFORD AND PHYLLIS f

Courses in problems for senior high school students have become increasingly popular since 1916, when the National Education Association recommended the study of “actual problems, issues, or conditions as they occur in life.”

This proposal was received with both approval and dis¬ approval. Some interpreted it as an invitation to destroy the integrity of the traditional subjects; others, in view of the lack of suitable materials, regarded the proposal, however desirable in itself, as only a chimerical scheme; still others feared that it would lead to the fruitless discussion of complex issues by immature and uninformed students.

Those who objected to a problems course frequently pursued the following chain of thought: “There is no single, inclu¬ sive social science; there are social studies . Since there is no recognized subject known as social science, there can be no scientific method applicable to all the social studies; con¬ sequently there can be no such product as a fused course in the social studies.”

This chain of reasoning, whether sound or not, does not concern the desirability of a problems course. We are not here interested in the speculative question of whether the social studies can be or should be fused into a single subject. A course in problems for high school students does not under¬ take to fuse them; instead, it recognizes the distinctions among them. The distinguishing feature of such a course is the application of what is known in the various subjects to a number of selected problems. It is not a fusing or merg¬ ing of the social studies but a utilization of them. This viewpoint may be illustrated by a quotation from Ogburn and Goldenweiser, Social Sciences and their Interrelations: “The social sciences, moreover, are not merely theoretical vi disciplines but also tools to be employed in the solution of the concrete practical problems of an existing and developing society.”

The second objection, that there were not suitable materials for a problems course, was for several years justified. Since then, however, several attempts to provide suitable materials have been made. Some of these attempts were avowed efforts to fuse the social studies, to erase subject matter boundaries; others were primarily collections of conventional facts about economics, sociology, and government; still others consisted of surveys of institutions, followed by a section on problems. The present offering, Principles of Social Science, A Survey of Problems in American Democracy, differs somewhat in its viewpoint from all of these in that it employs the problem approach throughout.

Part I defines, classifies, and illustrates problems. It pre¬ pares the student for the problem approach. Parts II, III, and IV consist of problems which fall primarily within the fields, respectively, of economics, sociology, and government. Trained in the technique of problem-solving within each of these fields, the student is then prepared for Part V, which consists of problems which are double or treble in nature. The principle involved in the construction of Part V is well illustrated by a quotation from Professor Charles E. Merriam: “In dealing with basic problems such as those of the punish¬ ment and prevention of crime, alcoholism, the vexed question of human migration, the relations of the negro, and a wide variety of industrial and agricultural problems, it becomes evident that neither the facts and the technique of economics alone, nor of politics alone, nor of history alone, are adequate, to their analysis and interpretation.” {American Political Science Review, XX, 8.) The “analysis and interpretation” of such complicated problems can be made only after the student has studied the simpler problems which fall primarily within the various subject matter fields.

A third objection that was raised to the problems course, namely, that the study of “problems” might lead only to vii

fruitless or even harmful discussion, had some justification. This objection arose from the failure to define the word problem. There are problems and problems. Do we propose to ask high school students to solve problems which have baffled the human race for generations? When mature people with all their abilities, scholarship, and experience have not solved them, it would, indeed, be worse than futile to present them to high school students with the expectation that they should solve them by mere discussion in the class¬ room. Students should study problems primarily for their own development , and not primarily for the good of society. In doing so, they are of course cultivating desirable habits and attitudes. From such development of the young person society may hope to profit, rather than from a premature attempt by him to shoulder the unsolved problems of society. In fact, many topics which are no longer problems for society are nevertheless problems for the student. Therefore, when we speak of problems for high school students, we mean, first of all, learning the answers to problems that society has already solved; secondly, learning the process by which the answer is to be found; and only thirdly, learning the materials and nature of unsolved problems. The failure to bear in mind that there are various kinds of problems for various groups has given rise to much misunderstanding. It is hoped that the treatment in Part I will clarify the use of the word problem and go far toward removing the misunderstanding which has gathered around it.

To facilitate examination of the book, a few words should be said about the apparatus. At the close of each chapter is a section called “Activities and References,” which includes the following: (1) A list of “Significant Words and Phrases,” which will furnish material for vocabulary drills, the results of which will show the teacher how well the student is master¬ ing the contents and terminology of the social studies; (2) “Questions” for review and discussion; (3) “Problems,” which are stated specifically and for which a specific method is suggested. Other and perhaps better ones will occur to viii

many teachers, and such problems may supplement or re¬ place those given in the book; (4) “References,” which are primarily for the pupils, since teachers are trained in the bibliographies of college texts and reference books, and also have access to guides and to their professional magazine, The Historical Outlook (1021 Filbert St., Philadelphia). Many of the books cited, however, are distinctly useful for teachers as well as students. No chapter or page references are given in the citations, because the authors believe that pupils should, by the constant use of tables of contents and indexes, acquire skill in finding the relevant material.

The Appendix includes (1) a glossary, which will serve as a convenient reference and as a basis for the review of the specialized words and phrases; (2) a bibliography of all books cited in the text; (3) the Constitution of the United States; and (4) the Covenant of the League of Nations.

The teacher will recognize the desirability of the constant use of newspapers and magazines, for eternal vigilance is the price of keeping up in the social studies.

The latest obtainable information and statistics have been used in this text. It is, therefore, a composite of the thoughts, efforts, and researches of many scholars. Even if space per¬ mitted, the authors would be unable to give credit to all of those to whom credit is due, but specific acknowledgments are made to those from whom we have consciously drawn assistance. Williamson’s Problems in American Democracy , originally published in 1922, was a pioneer in the field and received widespread approval and use. Much of that book, having stood the test of usage, has been incorporated into this volume.

The reported needs and desires of teachers, whose experi¬ ence entitles them to a share in the construction of a book designed for use under their direction, have been heeded. Miss Hazel Fish, Dean of Girls, South St. Paul High School (South St. Paul, Minn.), furnished some of the graphs, sug¬ gested the inclusion of a glossary, and generously assisted

IX in numerous ways. Miss Miriam A. Compton, a graduate student at the University of Minnesota, and Mr. Benjamin Lundquist of the University of Minnesota High School, assisted in the preparation of the apparatus for some of the chapters. Mr. Roman Becker of the English Department of the University of Minnesota assisted in the construction of Part I and read critically some of the other chapters. In j ustice to those who have assisted, it should be said that they are in no wise responsible for any errors or shortcomings which time may reveal.

Thames Ross Williamson

Edgar Bruce Wesley

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

Part I. The Approach To Problems . . 1

I. Problems and Problems. 3

II. The Meaning of Civilized Society. 16

III. The Social Sciences. 32

Part II. American Economic Problems . 39

IV. Nature of American Industry. 41

V. The Consumption of Goods. 49

VI. Producing Goods. 57

VII. Conservation of Natural Resources . 65

VIII. Problems of Labor. 76

IX. Bases of the Capitalistic System. 98

X. Sharing the Products of Industry.107

XL Exchanging the Products of Industry.114

XII. Banking and Credit.120

XIII. A Program of Industrial Reform.136

XIV. Profit Sharing and Cooperation.148

XV. Proposed Reforms.157

Part III. American Social Problems . . 175

XVI. Population.177

XVII. The Family.184

XVIII. The School.198

XIX. Rural Life.213

XX. The Negro.226

XXL Dependency.236

XI xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XXII. Defectives.249

XXIII. Public Opinion.259

Part IV. American Political Problems . 271

XXIV. The Federal Government.273

XXV. State Government.303

XXVI. Municipal and Local Government.326

XXVII. Who Shall Share in Government?.335

XXVIII. The Political Party.344

XXIX. Elections.355

XXX. Honesty and Efficiency in Office.366

XXXI. Direct Democracy.376

Part V. General Problems.385

XXXII. Immigration.387

XXXIII. Crime.399

XXXIV. Government and Business.412

XXXV. Taxation.429

XXXVI. The Tariff.442

XXXVII. International Relations .453

Appendix.473

The Constitution.521

. 545

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

The Law of Diminishing Utility. 49

Making Cotton Gauze. facing 59

Rank Order of Manufacturing States. 59

Federal Reserve Districts.128

Federal Farm Loan System.131

The New York Stock Exchange. facing 132

Banking Room in a Large Bank. facing 133

Children Under Five Years of Age, 1890-1930 . 200

Main Reading Room in the New York Public Library facing 208 A Class of Boys in a School Nature League Room . facing 209

A Veterinarian Inspecting Dairy Cows. facing 218

A Modern Way of Cultivating Corn. facing 219

A Summer Camp for Girl Scouts. facing 242

Medical Examination of Children. facing 243

Key to Mendel’s Law.252

Mendel’s Law.253

Apportionment of Representatives in Congress, 1930 . . . 290

Congressional Districts.291

The United States Supreme Court . facing 294

The House of Representatives. facing 295

A Bill Becomes a Law.295

Federal Circuit Court Districts of the United States . . 297

Vermont State Capitol. facing 314

A Court in Session . .. facing 315

Our System of Courts.319

Turbine Hall of the Conowingo Hydro-electric Plant in Maryland. facing 414

Transporting Electric Power. facing 415

xiii

Part I The Approach To Problems

“The beginning is everything. ”

— Old Greek saying.

This book undertakes to answer questions about the world in which we live. Some of these are the questions of everyday people about the everyday mechanism of man’s dealing with man: What is a contract? a promissory note? a trust company? a direct primary? Some of the questions are those of more curious people about the scientific meanings of everyday things: What is price? value? wealth? good? demand? Still other questions concern man’s inhumanity to man: What is crime? dependency? sabotage? a yellow-dog contract? Finally, some of the questions are about the vast, sometimes futile, proposals for the reform of society: What is bolshe¬ vism? socialism? anarchism? These are samples of the numerous questions treated in this book.

When we ask such questions, sometimes we are merely curious. We want to know what people mean by some of the words they use; or we want to know “how the other half lives”; or we want ideas that puzzle us clarified by simple, authoritative explana¬ tions. At other times we ask such questions because we have a part in this world which we wish to play with credit, and we know that to do so we need in¬ formation, and training in the use of it.

This book is designed to give the student informa¬ tion that he seeks and opportunities to train himself in the use of it. In the performance of this important task, the beginning is extremely important. Success depends upon our beginning with a clear-cut idea of what we are trying to do, of how we are going to do it, and of the materials and tools with which we must work.

Chapter I

A. About Problems in General

When do we have a problem? — Every high school student knows what a problem is. He has no doubt worked many and has tried to work others. Let us see if we recognize a prob¬ lem when one confronts us. “A postman delivers mail to twenty families in each of twenty blocks.” Does that sen¬ tence present a problem? Quite obviously, in its present form it does not; it is a mere statement of fact. Suppose we change the sentence thus: “If a postman delivers mail to twenty families in each of twenty blocks, how many families does he serve?” Now, obviously, we have a problem. We have a problem, then, when we have a question proposed for solution or answer.

The variety and extent of problems. — You will naturally say that the problem we have just given is very simple. The terms or quantities with which you must deal are “twenty blocks” and “twenty families”; the answer or solution you seek will be reached by simply using the process of multipli¬ cation. In other words, the terms of your problem are definite and known, and the process that you must apply to reach the correct answer is also definite and known. The simplest problems are like this one in elementary arithmetic, in which a known process, like addition or factoring, is applied to known quantities to find some unknown fact.

Not all problems, however, are so simple. Even in arith¬ metic one may not know what process to use. In that case the problem is more complex because it involves two steps: first finding the right process to use, and then applying it.

Problems in science raise other difficulties. For example, 3 what will be the product when two parts of hydrogen are united to one part of oxygen? By experimentation we know the answer. Suppose that a person, after swallowing a few grains of an unknown substance, becomes violently ill. In order to treat the patient properly, the doctor needs to know the nature of the substance. Here, then, is a problem for the chemist.

We are daily confronted with problems even more puz¬ zling to work out. How shall I spend my study period? How can I find a job? How can I safely invest my savings at a good interest rate? How can the student senate secure the cooperation of the student body? How can the legisla¬ ture raise in a fair manner the money necessary for running the government? These are just a few problems which con¬ front students and grown-up citizens. These problems are far less simple than the one with which we began. In them the terms are not given, and the correct processes for their solution are not even indicated. Whether we know how to solve such problems or not, we are forced to try. Our success in life depends upon our ability to solve problems. Prob¬ lems, then, are of all degrees of difficulty, are found in every range of life, and call for solution.

How is a problem solved? — To solve a simple problem, one has merely to select the terms and apply the right process correctly. To solve troublesome problems like those of hu¬ man relationships, however, at least three steps are necessary — the discovery of the facts (the “terms” of our problem), the selection of the correct process, and the application of this process to the situation. Each of these steps may be very difficult and may require the efforts of many persons through¬ out many generations. Let us look at several examples of such problems.

Some problems are difficult because their terms are un¬ known and the process or processes necessary for their solu¬ tion remain undiscovered. Such a problem is provided by the many criminals who prey upon society. To deal with this problem efficiently, we need to know the causes of crime.

The causes of crime are so numerous that we are reasonably safe in asserting that no one will find the cause of crime. Since the causes are so numerous, the cures will have to be numerous. We can solve the problem, perhaps, by selecting one factor which operates among the causes and treating it separately. For example, if poverty is one cause of crime, we can make efforts to remove that condition. We shall then have our problem put into definite terms, and know what kind of processes we have to find for its solution. But we shall soon realize that poverty itself is exceedingly com¬ plex and that in dealing with it we are facing another prob¬ lem whose solution will in turn require all the steps of the original problem. Nevertheless, this method of analysis and specific treatment offers the only promising solution of funda¬ mental human problems.

One is sometimes aware of a problem about which he knows a great deal but does not understand either the terms or the process by which it may be solved. For example, there is the problem of international peace. Many of the factors which disrupt the peace of the world are known, and many promising solutions have been offered, but we are still faced with the problem. We shall find the solution of it only when we get it stated in definite terms and understand what process or processes to apply in solving it.

A problem may be almost a puzzle. In that case, its solu¬ tion may require resourcefulness, ingenuity, and concentra¬ tion to discover the relevant facts. Years ago young people used to play a game called “If you can’t do this you can’t do nothing.” We shall not stop to examine the correctness of the expression, but shall proceed to watch the game. The best situation in which to play was one in which several knew the game and several did not. A circle of friends passed a cane from person to person. While each one had the cane in his hand he tapped the floor and gazed intently at the cane as he said, “If you can’t do this you can’t do nothing.” He then passed the cane to the next person. Those who understood the game knew that the whole point was to receive the cane with one hand and pass it with the other. The tapping and pronouncing of the formula had nothing to do with the point of the game. Those who did not know the game would try to see if the cane hit the floor with each word, between words, or after alternate words. The knowing ones derived much merriment and enjoyed the puzzled atten¬ tion of those who did not know the game. The amusing point was the fact that they observed the unimportant and irrelevant tapping and overlooked the essential receiving and passing of the cane.

Unless one is keenly alert to the essential parts of a prob¬ lem, he may overlook the relevant facts. It is not always easy or even possible to know beforehand what is relevant; so it is highly probable that every one gathers some facts for which he has no appreciable use. The more puzzlesome the problem that confronts him, the more irrelevant facts will he collect before he reaches the relevant ones.

Let us now summarize the principles that have been brought out by the foregoing discussion. In solving a prob¬ lem, one must know the facts or terms. If these facts are not given, the problem-solver must secure them. Having got the facts, he must study them until he understands their nature and interrelationships. He must know that his facts bear upon the problem, that they are pertinent to its solu¬ tion. He must then select the process to be used. If he does not know the process, he must do some more research and learn, perhaps by trial and error, what process will work. Thus the solving of a complex problem, especially one involv¬ ing human relationships, is no easy task, and those who are best informed are most likely to be cautious.

The two kinds of problems. — From the standpoint of the human race, problems fall into two groups — solved and unsolved.

Let us consider some solved problems. We know how to produce electricity. We know the cause of yellow fever. We know approximately how many people live in Cincinnati. Of course, some people may not have this information in mind, but the information is available. Thus the human race is not facing the problem of how to produce electricity. The process is known, and anyone who cares to learn it can easily find the required information in a variety of books or can learn it from a great number of informed people. This is only one instance. The answer to thousands of problems will occur to any thoughtful and well-informed person who takes the time to consider them. Indeed, the human race has collected an enormous stock of facts, of answers to prob¬ lems. In terms of problems, let us say that many, many “answer books” are available. In fact, there are so many answer books that finding and selecting the right one be¬ comes a problem in itself, but let us now consider some unsolved problems.

The unsolved problems are those for which there are no answer books. There are many such problems, even in an exact subject like mathematics. The number is much larger in mechanics and medicine, but perhaps the field in which there is the greatest number of unsolved problems is that of human relationships. How can the unemployed be em¬ ployed? How can international peace be assured? What is the fairest kind of tax? How can crime be lessened? How can the best man secure office? Should our state adopt unemployment insurance? These are a few samples of a great number of unsolved problems. They are difficult be¬ cause they involve people. Numbers are constant. An 8 is always the same easily-recognized figure. We can rely upon 8, but no two people are alike and no individual is the same year after year. The problems involving 8 can be standard¬ ized, but since people are inconstant, no absolute rule about them can be formulated. German cities work out an excellent system of city government. Can the same system be used by the French cities? Student government has been quite successful in the high school at Nymzwick. Should it be adopted by the high school at Esteville?

Such questions are difficult. They are peculiarly difficult because of the shifting and uncertain factors of human nature. Perhaps French citizens would not understand how to make the German system effective. Perhaps the boys and girls at Esteville are unprepared for and indifferent to student government.

There are no “answer books” to provide us our solutions for such problems. Whenever they occur, they are neces¬ sarily unsolved problems for which answers must be worked out by people who have learned how to get at the relevant facts and find correct processes of working with them.

B. About Problems for the Student

Why do we have problems in our school work? — The young student, like everyone else, has his special group of problems. The school is organized primarily to help him to discover what these are, to formulate them, and to solve them. Let us make sure we understand why we have prob¬ lems in our school work.

The school program is designed primarily for the develop¬ ment of the pupils. This program provides problems for study because in solving them the pupils will acquire knowl¬ edge and develop their powers of thought. Let us be clear on this point. As pupils, we are not expected to solve prob¬ lems which have baffled the human race for generations. When grown-up people, with all their ability, scholarship, and experience, have not solved such problems, it would be futile to present them to us with the expectation that we should solve them by mere discussion in the classroom. Therefore, those who suggest, hope, or fear that in the school we shall direct our efforts toward the solution of society’s unsolved problems misunderstand our purpose; they are in error as to whose interests are paramount in the school. As pupils, our problems come first, and we study them primarily for our own development, and not primarily for the good of society. In doing so, we cultivate the habit of securing information before forming opinions, and we develop the qualities of industry, alertness, open-mindedness, and resourcefulness. These habits and qualities will indeed make of us the able and willing problem-solvers we shall need to be in later years when the direction of public affairs falls into our hands. Meanwhile, however, in our school we are not trying to solve tomorrow’s problems; we are not merely preparing for the days to come. We are of course doing that, but also we are already taking part in life because we have problems of our own for which we seek the answers. What are some of those problems, and how have we come to have them?

Problems from solved problems. — The student has inherited the achievements of countless generations. Naturally, it is to his interest to know his inheritance, its nature and extent. His first problem, then, is to learn the answers to problems which the human race has already solved. Many of his problems, therefore, are no longer the problems of society; but they are his until he knows the answers.

The reasonableness of this requirement is obvious. The secluded genius who would labor to invent a self-propelling vehicle would be regarded as utterly ignorant, utterly fool¬ ish. Why did he not come forth and learn that the auto¬ mobile is already in existence? Why should he waste his efforts in trying to solve a problem which has already been solved? The fii^t business of the student, then, is to learn what has been accomplished.

Solved problems also provide the student another of his problems. Take the problem, What is the population of Ohio? The correct answer is available, and the census expert can probably recall it from memory. But finding the num¬ ber of people in Ohio may be a problem for the student. He either knows or does not know where to find the information. If he knows where to look, the problem is very simple indeed. He has merely to use a book in which the census returns are given. Many of the problems of the student are of this nature; they involve the finding of information which has already been gathered. To solve a problem which has al¬ ready been solved involves the simple process of using the answer book. Naturally, he cannot and does not need to remember all of the answers, but he must learn how to find the answers when he needs them.

The existence of solved problems, then, of “answers,’’ gives the student two of his problems — learning some an¬ swers and learning how to find answers that already exist.

Problems from unsolved problems. — We have already noted that society as a whole has many unsolved problems which remain as challenges to the whole human race. We have remarked that these are not primarily the concern of the pupil. He has problems of his own. Further, he is not yet equipped with the information and mental skill to solve such problems, and he should not cultivate the habit of jumping at conclusions as the result of haphazard dis¬ cussion.

Has the young student, then, no concern at all with so¬ ciety’s unsolved problems? He certainly has, for these are also part of his inheritance. They lie everywhere about him. Doubtless he has already run upon some of them; for in¬ stance, though he may not know that automobile accidents resulted in 1930 in the deaths of 33,000 persons, he is aware that each year many useful lives are snuffed out or ruined by such accidents and that how to prevent this waste of life is a problem calling upon society for solution. As he grows older he will be expected to take part in solving such prob¬ lems and others even more troublesome and more vital to human welfare. He should, therefore, begin now to learn what are the problems and wherein they are problems. In so far as the terms or relevant facts have been discovered, he should be learning them. In so far as human endeavor has perfected the equipment whereby the facts bearing upon any social problem may be collected and interpreted, he should be learning something about that equipment. Fi¬ nally, he can perhaps also learn what some of the proposed solutions have been and wherein they have been found in¬ adequate. In proportion as he is learning all these things, he is entering upon his social heritage, and, as we have said, his chief business as a student is to enter upon the heritage that is his from a long past of problem-solving.