The period of the reformation, 1517-1648.

Front matter

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

TT is unnecessary for me to say more than a very few words in introducing this work, by the late eminent German historian, Professor Hausser, to English readers. It contains not only a spirited sketch of the history of the Reformation in Germany, Switzerland, France, Denmark, Sweden and England, but also gives a comprehensive survey of its influence on the course of thought and action during the period of which it treats, and offers, in a compact form, information which has otherwise to be sought for over a wide field of literature. It is hoped, therefore, that it will be no less interesting to English than to German readers ; that it will be found not merely to traverse welltrodden ground, but that, from its comprehensiveness, and the learning, impartiality, and insight of the author, it will prove a valuable addition to the history of the Reformation period. It is translated with the sanction of the Editor.

Sydenham, J'une, 1873.

Preface

'X'HIS history of the period from 1517-1648 forms part of a course of lectures on the history of the three centuries, 15 17-1789, which Hausser used to deliver at Heidelberg in the winter, and which, during the winter half-year 1859-60, 1 took down in shorthand.

They were preceded by an Introduction, which treated in broad outline the history of the period preceding the Reformation ; but, unfortunately, I did not take it down. This was followed by a brief review of the history of the European States from 1648-1789. Nothing has been decided as to the publication of this ; but among Hausser's remains there are ample materials for working it up.

The text which I now give to the public has originated in essentially the same manner as that of the history of the French Revolution which appeared last year, and which has been received by the German press with unanimous approval. But in this case my MS. has had to form still more exclusively the groundwork of the narrative ; for not a single MS. has come to hand in answer to a public appeal ; and in consequence of the scanty material left, I have been compelled to have independent recourse to the literature referred to, to a far greater extent than was necessary in the former case. There was full material for three sections only, and these could not be adopted unaltered : for

VI PREFACE.

Philip of Hesse, Maurice of Saxony, and the Thirty Years' War, 1632-48, which had only been cursorily treated in the lectures. With these exceptions, for all the other sections that were wanting in completeness I was obliged to refer to the most important sources and materials. Such supplementary matter is introduced in many places in order to complete characteristic descriptions and narratives by adding specially distinctive features, serving to authenticate the statements in the text ; but it is only in the most important cases that they are indicated by notes. Besides frequent interpolations, which I could not specially indicate, most of the passages in quotation marks have been inserted by me. I need not say that my additions are not derived from the views or judgments of foreign historians, but always from original contemporary testimony. As a whole and in detail, all that has been aimed at is what Hausser would himself have done could he have prepared a text for publication.

I lay claim to the predicate of a verbatim reproduction of these lectures, as in the case of the history of the French Revolution. I have proceeded precisely in the same way in preparing them for publication, and have received express and ample testimony from many former hearers of Hausser that I have succeeded in finding the right method. Nevertheless, I must remind those who have never undertaken a similar task, of the great difference between words heard and read. For this difference, with which a speaker is perfectly familiar, and which is especially striking when there is a gift for improvisation, the shorthand writer must have a practised eye. In most cases it is indispensable to give a certain finish in the choice of words and construction of sentences in preparing for the press. If the speaker does not give it himself, the shorthand writer must take it in hand, and must be guided by tact. No rules

PREFACE.

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Part I

HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY T^ THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG, 1532.

Chapter I. Pagb

Martin Luther. November, 1483, to February, 1546. — Youth. —

Eisleben. — Mansfeld. — Magdeburg.— Eisenach.— Life in the Monastery at Erfurt. — Theological Development. — Justification by Faith I

Call to Wittenberg, 1508. — Journey to Rome, 1510. — The Indulgence of 1517. — Attempts of Leo. X. (elected Pope 1513) at Mediation. — Cajetan atthe Diet of Augsburg, October, 1518. — Miltitz's Discussion with Luther at Altenburg, 15 19. — Disputation at Leipzig, 27th June — 13th July, 1519. — The Turning-point with Luther 1 j

Chapter III

The Last Days of Maximilian I., January, 1519. — Election of a new Emperor. — Francis I. of France and Charles V. of Spain. — Political Position of the Emperor Charles V. — The Election in June. — The Election Bond, 3rd July, 1 519. . . • *9

CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. MM

The Diet of Worms, Spring of 1521. — Agreement between the Emperor and the Pope. — Negotiations about Luther. — The Mandate of 8th — 26th May, 1521. — Growth of the Regal Power in France under Francis I., 1515-47. — His Domestic and Foreign Policy. — The First War, 1521-26 . . • 42

Chapter V

The Situation of Germany during the absence of Charles V. — Luther in the Wartbur^. — The Translation of the Bible and its Significance. — Lulher and the Radicals at Wittenberg. — The Eight Sermons against Carlstadt, March, 1522. — Luther's cause before the Imperial Chamber and the Diet of Nuremberg, 1522-23. — The Resolution of January 13th, 1523. — The One Hundred Gravamina. — The Decree about the Preaching oi the Gospel. 60

Chapter VI

Reform and Revolution. — The Nobles of the Empire. — Ulrich von Huttcu, 1488-1523. — Franz von Sickingen, the Feud of 1522, and the Catastrophe of 1523. — Reaction upon the Ref-- .nation. — Activity of the Curia. — Adrian VI., January, .322, to September, 1523. — Clement VII., September, 1534. The Convention of Ratisbon, July, 1524 . . . . 72

Chapter VII

The Great Peasants' War, 1524-5. — The increasing Oppression of the Peasantry. — The Prelude to the Peasants' War in 1514. — Influence of the Reformation. — The Twelve Articles. — The Heilbronn Scheme. — Thomas Miinzer. — Luther's Attitude. — The Catastrophe, May and June, 1525 . . . . .91

Chapter VIII

Reaction of the Revolution upon the Reformation. — Charles V. and the Peace of Madrid. — The Diet of Spire, August, 1526. — Spread of the Reformation. — Its share in the National Disruption. — The New War in Italy. — The League of Cognac, May, 1526. — The Storming oi Rome by the Imperial Troops, 1527.— Advance of the French to Naples, and Dissolution of their Army there, 1528. — Peace of Barcelona and Cambray, 1529. — The League between the Pope, the Emperor, and the King against the Heretics ..,,., 106

CONTENTS. XI

Chapter IX. Page

Reaction of Italian Affairs upon Germany. — Aggravation of the State oi Affairs by Otto von Pack. — Altered Relation of Parties. — The Diet of Spire and the Protest of the Lutheran Party, April, 1529. — The Turks before Vienna, 1529. — Diet of Augsburg and the Confession of Augsburg, June 25th, 1530. — Threats against the Protestants ; their first Meeting and League at Schmalkald, December, 1530 — March, 1531. — Danger from the Turks, and the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, July 23rd, 153a ........ 113

Part II. The Reformation In The Other Germanic

STATES; IN SWITZERLAND, DENMARK,

SWEDEN, AND ENGLAND.

Chapter X. The Reformation In Switzerland

Early Life and Mental Development of Ulrich Zwingli, 1484- 1519. — Study of the Classics. — Curate at Glarus, 1506-16. — Study of the New Testament. — Sermon against the Desertion of their Country by the Swiss. — Labours at Einsiedeln, 1516-18. — Call to Zurich. — The Reformation at Zurich, 1519- 25. — Zwingli's Sermons in the Great Cathedral. — Decree of the Council of 1520. — The Sixty-seven Articles of 1523. — Progress of Reform. — Reformed Zurich and Switzerland in 1526-31 iaj

Chapter XI

The Period between the Union of Calmar, 1397, and the Reformation. — Position of the Danish Monarchy. — Policy and Character of Christian IL, 1513-23.— Complications with Sweden. — The Massacre of Stockholm, November, 1520. — Course of Reform in Denmark. — Revolt of the Nobles. — Election of Frederic I., April, 1523-33.— His Domestic and Foreign Policy.— The Diet at Odensee, 1527, and Toleration of the New Doctrines. — Complete Victory of the Reformation under Christian HI., 1534-59 14J

Xli CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. Sweden

Ml

The Revolt under Gustavus Vasa, 1523-60 — His Character and Policy. — 1521 Regent, 1523 King of Sweden. — Internal and external Embarrassment of his Position. — Struggle with the Clergy. — Decree of the Diet of Westeras, 1527. — The Reformation. — Extension of the Royal Power. — Independence and internal Prosperity of the Country 153

Chapter XIII. England

England before the Tudors — Henry VIII., 1509-1547. — His Character and Attitude at first towards the Church. — Hi~ Opposition to the Reformation which was demanded by the Mental Development of the Nation. — The Complications with Rome. -••Tbe Marriage Question, 1526-29. — Wolsey's Fall. — Breach with Rome. — The Royal Supremacy, 1534. — The Religious War against Catholics and Protestants. — The Secularisation of Monasteries. — The Six Articles of 1593 . . 163

Part III. The German Reformation From The Peace

OF NUREMBERG TO THE PEACE OF

AUGSBURG, I532—55-

Chapter XIV

Favourable Circumstances for the Reformation from 1532-42. — The Restoration in Wiirtemberg, 1534. — Spread of the new Doctrines in spite of the Excesses at Miinster and the Revolution at Lubeck, 1533-35. — The Emperor's Attempts at Conciliation, 1537-41. — His View of the Question. — Instructions and Proceedings of Vice-Chancellor Held. — The League of Nuremberg, June, 1538. — The Discussion of Religion, the Interim of Ratisbon, and the Decree of the Diet, July 29th, 1541. — Decided Progress of Protestantism, 1538-42. — Adoption of it by Brandenburg and the Duchy of Saxony, 1539. — Interference of the League of Schmalkald and the Controversy at Cologne ...» 179

CONTENTS. X1U

Chapter XV. .MM

The Schmalkald War, 1546-7. — The Emperor's Preparations for War after 1544.— Security, Dissensions, and Negligence of the Schmalkald Party, 1545-6. — Duke Maurice of Saxony, his Character and Policy. — League with the Emperor, June, 1546. — The War, from the summer of 1546 to the spring of 1547. — Pitiful Warfare of the Allies on the Danube. — Invasion of Electoral Saxony by Maurice. — Battle of Muhlberg, 24th April, 1547 • • . 196

Chapter XVI

Interim and Restoration, 1548. — The Council of Trent from 13th of December, 1545, and the Diet of Augsburg from September. 1547 "S

Chapter XVII

Maurice and the Conspiracy of the German Princes. — Isolation of the Elector among both Catholics and Protestants. — The Negotiations with France. — The Coalition against the Emperor. — Treaty with France, and Surprise of the Emperor, 1551-2. — Treaty of Chambord, January, 1552. — March of the Allies, March, 1552. — Security and Defiance of the Emperor. — Taking of the Ehrenberger Klause, May, 1552. — Charles's Flight. — The Treaty of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg, August, 1552 — September, 1555. — Charles's Retreat and Last Days. — General Results of the Reformation in Germany . ss6

Chapter XVIII

Calvin's Youth. — Characteristics of the Man and his System. — The " Institutio Religionis ChristiansB," 1536. — Calvin's Ecclesiastical State in Geneva. — The Attempt, 1536-8. — Success, 1541-64. — The Organization of January, 1542. — Ecclesiastical and Moral Discipline of Calvinism, and its Historical Importance ........ 241

XTV CONTENTS.

Chapter XIX. MM

Reformation and Restoration in Italy. — Division of Opinion among the People.— Vacillation oi the Curia. — Opinion of the Cardinals on Reform in 1537. — Conciliatory Attitude till 1541. — The Council of Trent and the Catholic Restoration. — First Meeting of the Council, December, 1545-7. — Rudeness of the Curia to the Emperor and Protestants. — Second Meeting, May, 1551. — Pope Paul IV. (Caraffa), 1555-9. Third Meeting, January, 1562, to the end of 1563. — Pope Pius IV., 1559-65. — Progress and Results of the Negotiation. — Increased Consolidation ot the Ecclesiastical Power. — Precautions against Sectarianism. — Reconstruction of the shattered Religious System. — Improvement in the Intellectual and Moral Training of the Clergy. •••••• 256

Chapter XX. The Jesuits And The Inquisition

Ignatius Loyola and the Society of Jesus. — Spanish Catholicism. — Loyola's Spiritual Knighthood, from 1521. — Organization of the Order, from the time of its Authorisation, 1540. — Its Constitution, Principles, Discipline, and Tactics. — The Inquisition. — The Instructions of Cardinal Caraffa. — Censorship of the Press • « 65

Part V

PHILIP H. IN SPAIN, AND THE REVOLT IN THE NETHERLANDS.

Chapter XXI

SPAIN UNDER CHARLES V. AND PHILIP II.

The Ecclesiastical-political Plans of Philip, 1565-98.— The Absolute Monarchy in Spain under Charles V.— Philip's Inheritance.— His Character.— Amalgamation of Spiritual and Temporal Despotism in Spain a 7*

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter XXII. The Revolt In The Netherlands

PAOI

History, Government, Country, and People of the; Seventeen Provinces before Philip II. — Philip's Policy in the Netherlands after November, 1555. — The Regency and the Aristocracy : Orange, Egmont, Margaret of Parma, Bishop Perrenot (Granvella). — The Spanish Troops. — The Increase of Bishoprics. — The Inquisition in the Netherlands. — Tactics of Charles V. — The Renewal of the Edict of 1550. — Granvella's Removal, 1564. — Egmont's Journey and the Compromise, January, 1565. — Spring of 1566. — The Beggars' League. — The Field-preaching and Attack upon Images, April to August, 1566. — Defeat of the Volunteer Army of the Beggars at Anstruveel, March, 1567. — The Departure of William of Orange from the Netherlands, April, 1567 .... 285

Chapter XXIII

The Duke of Alba in the Netherlands. — His Entry into the Country.— Alba 's Characteristics. — Disappointment of the Regent. — Guilelessness of Egmont and Horn. — Their Imprisonment, 9th of September. — The Council of Disturbances.— Executions, and the First War of Independence, 1567-8. — Members, System, and Proceedings of the Council of Blood. Louis of Nassau in Friesland, April — July, 1568. — Success at Heiliger Lee in May. — Death of Egmont and Horn, 5th of June. — Alba's Victory, July. — Advance of Orange and Dissolution of his Army, October. — Highest Point and Decline of Alba's System, 1569-73.-^6" 10th Penny" March, 1569. — The "Amnesty," 14th July, 1570.— The Sea-Beggars at Brill, 1st April, 1572. — Louis of Nassau at Mons, May. — The Rising in Holland and Zealand.- -Second Campaign of William of Orange frustrated by the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — Alba's Retreat, December, 1573 313

Chapter XXIV. Alba's Successors In The Netherlands

Character of the War which now began. — Requesens y Zuniga, 1573—76. — Defeat and Death of Louis of Nassau on the Mooker Haide, 14th of April, 1574. — Siege and Succour of Leyden, 26th of May to 3rd of October, 1574. — Separation between the Northern and Southern Provinces. — The Interregnum. — The Great Mutiny of the Soldiers.— The Pacification of Ghent, 8th of November, 1576-78. — Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, 1587-89.— The Union of Utrecht, January, 1579, and Declaration of Independence of the Seven Northern Provinces, July, 1581.— Murder of William, July

XTi CONTENTS.

Part VI

THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE, UNTIL THE RESTORATION OF THE KINGDOM BY HENRY TV.

Chapter XXV. Fast

The last War with Spain and England, 1557-9. — Defeat at St.

Quentin, 1557, and Gravelingen, 1558. — Taking of Calais, Peace of Cateau Cambrasis, 3rd April, 1559. — Catharine de Medici and the Government of the Guises. — French Protestantism m Conflict with the State. — The Clergy, Humanism, the Sorbonne and Parliament. — First Agitation of the New Doctrines. — Persecution of the Heretics after 1552. — The Aristocracy and the Princes of the Blood attacked by Calvinism. — The Conspiracy of Amboise, March, 1 560. — Crisis and Change after the Death of King Francis II., 5th December, 1560. — Successes of Protestantism, 1559. — La R6- naudie's Project. — Conde's Trial. — Catharine de Medici as Regent 345

CHAPTER XXVI. CHARLES IX., I56O-74, AND THE HUGUENOTS, UNTIL 157a

The First Compromise with the Reform Party. — The States of the Empire at Orleans, 1560-61. — The Discussion on Religion at Poissy, Autumn of 156 1. — The Edict of 17th January, 1562. — The Three First Religious Wars, 1562-70.— The Massacre at Vassy, March, 1562. — Character of the Civil War.— The First Religious War.— Battle of St. Dreux, December, 1562. — Edict of Amboise, March, 1563. — The Second Religious War, 1567-8. — The Edict of Longjumeaux, March, 1568.— The Third Religious War, 1569-70. — Victories of the Catholics at Jarnac and Moncontour. — Religious Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, August, 1570. — Character of Charles IX 35',

Chapter XXVII

THE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW.

Coligny at Court, and the War with Spain, September, 1571 — July, 1572. — The Massacre, 24th Angust, 1572, and the Fourth Religious War, 1572-3.— End of Charier IX., 30th May. 1574 366

CONTENTS. XVI i

Chapter XXVIII. Henry III., I574-89, And The League

pa«s

Character of Henry. — The Edict of May, 1576, ani 3 . uie Holy League of the Guises. — Protracted Vacillation. — Death of Francis of Anjou, June, 1584, and Contest about the Succession. — The War of the Three Henrys, 1588-9. — The Barricades of Paris, May, 1588. — The States at Blois, October, 1588, and the Murder of the Two Guises, 23rd and 24th December, 1588. — Flight and Murder of Henry III., August 2nd, 1589 375

Chapter XXIX. Henry IV., 1589-16ic

Character of Henry IV. — His Struggle for the Crown, 1789-93. — Dissolution ol the Opposing Party. — Charles of Mayenne, the Parisian Demagogues, Plans of Philip II. — Henry's Conversion to Catholicism ; Motives for and Consequences of this Step. — Henry's Administration, 1594-1610. — Peace of Vervins, May, 1598. — Edict of Nantes, 1598. — Sully's Administration. — Plan of a Great Protestant Alliance against Spanish Hapsburg. — Henry's Murder, by Ravaillac, 14th May, 1610 . 382

Part VII

THE GERMAN EMPIRE, FROM THE PEACE OF AUGS- BURG TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1555-1618.

Chapter XXX. General Situation Of Germany After 1 555

Impotence of the Empire. — Continuance of the Contest of the

Chapter XXXI. Protestantism In Austria

Ferdinand I., 1558-64. — Maximilian II., 1564-76. — Rudolph II., 1576-1612. — The Bohemian Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), 1609. — Duke Maximilian of Bavaria and the Imperial City of Donauworth, 1606-7. — The Protestant Union, 1608, and the Catholic League, 1609. — Matthias, 1612-19 .... 407 b xviii CONTENTS.

Part VIII

FIRST PHASE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.— THE BOHEMIAN, PALATINATE, AND DANISH WARS, 1620-29.

Chapter XXXII. Mai

First Acts of Ferdinand II., from March, 1619. — His Character and Education. — Beginning of his Reign in Revolutionary Austria. — Election of Emperor, August, 1619. — The Winter Kingdom of Frederick V., and the War in Bohemia. — The Battle of Weissenberg, near Prague, 8th November, 1620. — The Catholic Reaction in Bohemia and the Palatinate, 1621 415

Chapter XXXIII. The Danish War, 1625-29, And Albrecht Of Wallenstein

Change of Sentiment. — The Protestant League : England, Holland, Denmark, 1625. — Christian IV. of Denmark. — Albrecht von Wallenstein. — His Character. — The War of 1626-8. — Defeat of Mansteld at Dessau, April, 1626. — Defeat of Christian IV. at Lutter, on the Barenberg, August, 1626. — Wallenstein and Tilly in North Germany, Mecklenburg, Stralsund, 1628. — Peace of Lubeck, May, 1629. — The Edict of Restitution, March, 1629, and its Significance. — Machinations of. the League against Wallenstein. — The Meeting of Princes at Ratisbon. — Dismissal of Wallenstein, June, 1630 . • • 428

Chapter XXXIV. Sweden And Gustavus Adolphus

Sweden before Gustavus Adolphus. — Eric XIV., 1560-68. — Johr III.. 1568-92, and Charles of Siideimanland. — Charles as Regent, 1 592-1604. — Charles IX. as King, 1604-11. — Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden, 161 1-30. — Position of Affairs at the beginning of his Reign. — Political, Military, and Domestic Reforms. — Wars with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. —The Contest for the Baltic .444

CONTENTS. XIX

Chapter XXXV. Gustavus Adolphus In Germany, 1630-32

MM

Origin and Significance of the Swedish War. — Motives, Political and Religious, of Gustavus Adolphus. — Characteristics of him and his Army. — Their .Landing and First Successes, June — December, 1030. — Gustavus Adolphus in Pomerania. — Siege of Stettin ; Treaty with Duke Bogeslav. — Tedious Advance into Pomerania. — Imperial troops dnven out of Pomerania, December, 1630. — Treaty of Barwald, January, 1631. — Convention of Leipzig, and Fall of Magdeburg, May, 1631. — Electoral Brandenburg and Electoral Hesse join Gustavus Adolphus, June — August. — Battle of Breitenfeld, September 7, 1631. — Victorious March of Gustavus Adolphus towards South and West Germany, October — December, 1631. — Plans for Restoration. — Overthrow ot the Power of the League. — Return of Wallenstein, April, ib32. — Battle of Lutzen, 16th November, 1632. — Death of Gustavus Adolphus and its Significance 45a

Part X

THIRD PHASE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.— RICHELIEU, OXENSTIERNA, AND BERNHARD VON WEIMAR.

Chapter XXXVI. Mlance After The Death Of Henry It

Louis XIII., 1610-43, and Mary of Medici. — The Parliament of 1614. — Murder of the Marshal d'Ancre, April, 1617. — The Duke ot Luynes. — Cardinal Richelieu, 1624-42, and Louis XIII. — Characteristics of both. — Richelieu's political method. — His testament. — His rule at home and abroad. — Fall of La Rochelle, 1628. — The affair in the Valteline and the War about Mantua, 1630 483

Chapter XXXVII

GERMANY FROM THE DEATH OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS TO WALLEN- STEIN'S CATASTROPHE. NOVEMBER, 1632 — FEBRUARY, 1634.

Dissensions in the Swedish Camp : Oxenstierna and Bernhard of Weimar. — Beginning of the French Negotiations : Marquis de

XX CONTENTS.

PKdi Feuquieres. — The Treaty of Heilbronn, April 23rd, 1633. — Wallenstein's ambiguous conduct of the war in 1633. — Negotiations with Saxony. The letter of December 26th, 1633.— * The Bond of Pilsen, January 12th, 1634. — The murder a Eger, February 25th, 1634 ...... . 501

Chapter Xxxviii

THE . AB. FROM THE BATTLE OF NORDLINGEN, 1634, TO BERNHARDT DEATH, 1639.

Defeat of the Swedish army at Nordlingen. — Oxenstierna's iiuitiess negotiations. — The peace of Prague, 1635. — Its significance and results. — Baner's victories and vicissitudes, 1636-7. — Victories and death of Bei-nhard of Weimar, 1638-9 . . .514

Part XI End Of The War.— The Peace Of Westphalia

1640-48.

Chapter XXXIX. Baner's End, May, 164i, And Torstenson's Victories, I642-5

Battle of Leipzig, 2nd November, 1643.— Campaign against Denmark, 1643-44. — Victory near Jankowitz, February, 1645. — Simultaneous warfare of the French. — The Peace Negotiations and end of the War. — The Diet of Ratisbon from September, 1640. — Brandenburg's Proposition of Unconditional Amnesty, and Restoration to the Condition of 1618. — -The Himburg Preliminaries, December, 1641. — The Meeting of Deputies at Frankfort, 1642-45. — Beginning of the Peace Congress and end of the War, 1644-48 537

CHAPTER XL. THE PEACE Of WESTPHALIA • « 4 S4 6

CONTENTS. XXJ

Part XII

COMPLETION OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. CHAPTER XLI.

THI REFORMATION OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH UNDE* EDWARD VI., I547-53.

The inheritance of Henry VIII. — Character of the young King. — The first Protector, Edward, Duke of Somerset, 1549. — The second Protector, Earl of Warwick, Duke of Northumberland, 1553.— Character of the Church Reform, Bible, Catechism, Book of Common Prayer, Abolition of the Mass, Celibacy, &c. — The Catholic reaction under Mary, 1553-8. — Abolition of the Ecclesiastical Laws of Edward VI., and first acts of revenge. — Marriage with Philip II. of Spain, 1554.— The Question of Church Property.— Parliament and the Laws concerning Heresy.- The Ordeal by fire of English Protestantism. — The untenable position of the Government after the loss of Calais and the Breach of the Constitution . 560

Chapter XLII. Queen Elizabeth, I558-i0o3

Cautious beginnings.— The Parliament of 1559 and the Re-establishment of the Anglican Church. — Beginning of the conflict with Mary Stuart. — The Reformation in Scotland, John Knox. — Mary Stuart in Scotland, 156 1-8. — Darnley.— Rizzio. — Bothwell.— Mary Stuart in England.— Attitude of Rome and Spain against Elizabeth.— The Conspiracies.— Norfolk, I 5 6 9~ I 57 2 - — Elizabeth's forced enmity towards Rome and Spain, 1572-85.— Conspiracy of Savage and Babington.— Mary Stuart's Tiial and Execution, 1586-7.— The Spanish Armada and Elizabeth's last days, 1603 . . . .Hi

Part XIII

THE REVOLUTION AND REPUBLIC IN ENGLAND. CHAPTER XLIII.

JAMES I., 1603-25.

Character of the Monarch and unfavourable beginning of his Reign — Ihe Gunpowder Plot, November, 1605.— The Contests of

XXll CONTENTS.

162 1. — Trial of Lord Bacon of Verulam. — The Question of taking part in the Bohemian-Palatinate War. — The Difficulties of Parliament. — Ad dress of November, 162 1, and Dissolution of Parliament. — The Spanish Marriage Scheme. Buckingham and the Prince of Wales. — Change in the Policy of England. — The Parliament of 1624. — Death of James, April, 1625 • 6°J

Chapter XLIV

Charles I., 1625-49. — His Character. — The first two Parliaments, 1625-26. — The War with Spain and France. — The third and last Parliament.— The Petition of Right, 1628-9.— Charles I - without a Parliament. — The Earl of Strafford. — Archbishop Laud. — The Star Chamber. — The High Commission. — Ship Money, 1634. — John Hampden's Trial, 1637 . . • • 616

Chapter XLV. The Turn Of Events

The Complications in Scotland, 1637-39. — The Tumult at Edinburgh. — The Covenant, 1638. — The General Assembly at Glasgow, November, 1638. — The Fourth Parliament, 1640. — The Long Parliament. — First Measures against the Policy and Representatives of Strafford's System. — Indictment, Trial, and Execution of Strafford, May, 1641 . . . 6}i

Chapter XLVI. Open Breach Between The King And Parliament

The King in Scotland, August, 1641. — Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland. — Return of Parliament in October, and the Separation of Parties into Cavaliers and Roundheads. — The Great Remonstrance, November, and the unsuccessful Coup d'Etat, January 3rd and 4th, 1642. — Commotions in London. — The First Parliamentary Army. — Departure of the King. — Return of Parliament, January nth, 1642 . • • • .641

CHAPTER XLVn.

THE CIVIL WAR.

Prospects of both Parties. — Victories of the Royalists, October, 1642, to September, 1643. — Interposition of the Scots. — Presbyterians and Independents. — Defeat of the Royalists at Marston Moor, July, and at Newbury, October, 1644. — Oliver Cromwell. — The Self-denying Ordinance . • . 6^1

CONTENTS. XX111

Chapter XLVIII. The Catastrophe Of Charles And Of The Parliament

PA«I Defeat of Charles at Naseby, June, 1645. — He takes refuge with the Scots, who sell him to the Presbyterians. — Mutiny of the Army against Parliament. — Abduction of the King. — March to London. — First Purge of Parliament, August, 1647. — The King's Flight to the Isle of Wight.— His Trial and Execution, 30th January, 1649 664

Chapter XLIX. The Commonwealth, Without King Or House Of Lords

Cromwell's Position after the Death of Charles I. — Parties, Republic and Monarchy. — Subjugation of Ireland and Scotland, 1649-51. — War with Holland. — The Navigation Act, October, 1651, and the Peace of April, 1654. — The Constitutional Experiments. — Dismissal of the Long Parliament. — The Constitution of December, 1653. — The Parliament oi 1654-5, and the Military Government. — The Parliament of 1656-7. — Proposal of a Monarchy. — The Upper H >use of January, 1658. — Cromwell's Death, 3rd September, 1658. — Richard Cromwell and the end of the Republic . • . €7 j

Part I

HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG, 1532.*

Chapter I

Martin Luther. November, 1483, to February, 1546. — Youth. — Eisleben. — Mansfeld. — Magdeburg. — Eisenach. — Life in the Monastery at Erfurt. — Theological Development. — Justification by Faith.

IN the state of things which existed about the year 1517, a trifling incident might have been the spark which was to set the whole nation in a flame — an insignificant man might have given the impetus to that which was inevitable. But events did not take this course ; the exciting cause was indeed scarcely proportionate to the results, but the indi-

* Literature : — For the reign of Maximilian, see Miiller, Reichstagtheatrum. Jena, 1719; and Reichstagstaat. Jena, 1709. Datt, De Pace Imperii Publica. Ulm, 1698. Chmel, Urkunden zur Geschichte Maximilian's. Stuttg., 1845. Monurn. Habsburgica. Ed. Lanz, 1853. I. Fontes rer. austr. Ed. Karajan, 1855. I. Monum. Habsburg. Ed. Chmel, 1854, ff. i. ii. Kliipfel, Urkunden zur Geschichte des Schwab. Bundes. Stuttg., 1846, i. L. Ranke, Geschichte der Romanischenund GermanischenVolker von 1494- 1535. Berlin, 1824. Hegewisch, Geschichte Maximilian's. Hamburg, 1782. On the Reformation and Karl V., besides the writings of the Reformers. Luther's Werke. Ed. Walch, and his Letters edited by De Wette. Luther's Werke. Erlangen, 1826-57, 67 Bde. Melancthon's Schriften im Corpus Reformatorum. Ed. Bretschneider ; then Lorscher, complete Reformations acta. Leipzig, 1720. Hortleder, Handlungen und Ausschreiben ^von den Ursachen des Kriegs K. Karl V. wider die Schmalkald. Bundesverwandten. Frankfort, 161 7. Lehman, De Pace Religionis Acta Publica. Frankfort, 1707. Forstemann, Urkundenbuch. Hamburg, 1841. Sleidanus, De Statu Religionis et Reipublicae, Carole V. Csesare Argent, 1555. Ed. Am Ende, Frankfort, 1785. Spalatinus, Annales Reformat. Leipzig, 1718. The same, Chronicon bei Menken, T. ii.

vidual whose theses were to remodel trie world was a man of the first class — so great, so eminent, that he was not engulfed in the stream of events, but struggled with them, guided and ruled them until his death.