Elements of chemistry

Front matter

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SNTED HY

ELEMENTS

Preface

In compiling the first edition of this work, the author attempted to prepare a text-book which should be well fitted for elementary instruction. Most of the works on chemistry appeared to him to be either too profound, on the one hand, for those who were just commencing the study, or too superficial, on the other, for those who wished to obtain a scientific knowledge of the subject.

The design was to avoid these two extremes, and combine the scientific with the popular and useful parts of the subject. The rapid sale of the first edition, and its introduction into several colleges, have led to the inference that the attempt has not been wholly unsuccessful. The author has therefore been induced to revise and enlarge the work, and put it into a permanent form. A large amount of matter, and numerous engravings, have been added, for the purpose of rendering the work better adapted to academies and other schools.

It is believed that greater success would attend the efforts of teachers in this branch of science, if more attention were given to the principles of chemistry, and less to its details. The fundamental principles being thoroughly understood by the student, he is prepared to attend to the details with greater pleasure and success, as he will be able to connect the effects with their appropriate causes.

Under the influence of this belief, the author has given a greater prominence to the imponderable agents and the thir-

4 PREFACE.

teen non-metallic substances, than to other parts cf the work Most of the illustrations and experiments are introduced m this part, so as to present and illustrate the philosophy oi chemical combinations, and the general nature of the compounds thus formed ; in other words, the causes of chemical changes and the mode of studying them.

By the introduction of numerous experiments and illustrations, the object has been to give to the work a practical character, so that the teacher, with a very simple apparatus, and with limited means, may be able to give numerous experimental illustrations to his classes. The importance of studying chemistry experimentally, is admitted by all ; and to aid teachers in constructing the more simple forms of apparatus, many notes and drawings have been added, and experiments described, which may easily be performed by those who are not privileged with more costly and extensive means of illustration.

In the arrangement of the imponderable agents, the phenomena of common and voltaic electricity, electro-magnetism, and magneto-electricity, are classed as effects of one agent — electricity.

In the arrangement of the simple substances, the logical order has been adopted ; that is, each simple substance is described, and then its combinations with those only which have been previously described ; so that only one substance with which the pupil is unacquainted is presented at a time. This classification appears to be the most convenient for presenting the different compounds, and less liable than any other to confuse the mind of the learner. This order, however, has been adopted only with the simple substances and their binary compounds.

The salts occupy a separate chapter, in the arrangement of which Turner's Chemistry has been made the basis Several new salts, and one entire family, — the silicates, — oave been added*

PREFACE ,

The chapter on Organic Chemistry has been entirely rewritten, and the whole very much enlarged, exhibiting the new views contained in the works of Kane, Graham, and Pownes — to which works, for further details, the student is referred.

The chapter on Analytical Chemistry has been considerably enlarged ; but the methods of analysis have became so accurate, the details so minute, and the processes so complicated, that those who would obtain a full mastery of the subject, must consult works which treat particularly cf chemical analysis. Sufficient only has been inserted to give the pupil some idea of the nature of the processes, and to enable him to test, if not actually to analyze, the substances which are mentioned.

The Glossary of chemical terms has been selected from that prepared by Daniel!, of London, and adapted to this work. The table of contents has been much enlarged, and a complete analysis of the work presented, in the form cf topics, which are" intended to be used instead of questions ; the topics being so arranged that, when the teacher suggests one, the pupil may give a complete description of it. This plan, it is believed, will prevent the evils incident to direct questions, while it will secure ail their advantages.

Chemical formulae have been extensively adopted. This appears highly important, especially for those who intend to become thorough students in the science. The notation, (the use of symbolical language,) to express, in a condensed form, complicated chemical changes, seems to hi as useful in chemistry as in algebra, and, although these symbols may be unintelligible to the common reader, he who will thoroughly study them will find them the most efficient aid to a clear, definite, and easy comprehension of the whole science.

In the description of the ponderable bodies, brevity has

6 MtEFACE.

been consulted, as far as was consistent with perspicuity The illustrations and descriptions are much more extendea in the first two hundred pages than in other parts of the work. The method of description which is employed in natural history has been adopted, where the subject did not require a more popular style. By this means, ana by using different kinds of type, a large amount of matter nas been condensed into a small compass, while, at the same time, that which is more important to be studied is rendered conspicuous. Many subjects of minor importance are only alluded to, and reference frequently made to more extensive works.

The sources from which most of the materials have been drawn, are the works of Turner, Graham, Kane, and Fownes. Other works have been consulted, and also many original papers in the scientific journals of the day ; and it is confidently believed, that in the recent revision of the work no. important discovery has been omitted.

A, G.

Brooklyn Seminary, January, 1848.

Introduction

Pa*

Science defined — Physical and Natural science 21

Definition of matter — how many properties does it embrace ?..... 21

Division of Natural Science.

I Natural Philosophy — method and object of. 21

II. Chemistry — method and object of. 22

III. Natural History — method and object of. 22

Plan of the Work.

Part I. Imponderable Agents — why so called 22

II. Chemical Affinity — definition of. 23

III. Ponderable Bodies — chemical and natural substances. 24

Division of substances ; simple and compound bodies. . . . 24 Analysis and synthesis; arrangement of chem. substances 24

CHAPTER I. — CALORIC. The term heat how used — meaning of caloric 25

1 Sensible caloric defined. — 2. Insensible caloric do 25

Sect. 1. Sensible Caloric — Communication of.

The most important property of sensible caloric 26

I. Conduction — meaning and illustration of. 26

Conducting power ; how does it differ in bodies ? 26

Different degrees of this power illustrated 27

1. Conducting power of solids ; illustrated by conductometer 27

Best and poorest conductors, metals, stones 27

Uses of conductors, benevolence of God illustrated 28

Ratio of the conducting power of solids 28

2. Conducting power of liquids ; how are liquids heated ? Ills 28

Heat applied at the top of liquids in a glass jar 29

3. Conducting power of gases ; how are they heated ? 29

II. Radiation — defined; radiant caloric, how projected ? 30

1. Law of the intensity of heat at different distances 30

2. Degree of radiation, dependent upon what ? 30

Difference between bright, and dark or rough surfaces, Ills 30

Greater radiating power of rough surfaces, depends on what ? . • 30

3. Rapidity of radiation dependent upon what ? 31

III. Disposition of Radiant Caloric — reflect., absorb., transmit. 31

1. Reflection of caloric ; law of reflection, angles of incidence and

reflection. Concave mirrors described 31

2. Absorption of caloric ; depends upon what ? .*. . 32

Best absorbers, reflectors, and radiators „ 32

Color of surface ; its effect upon the power of absorp,, Ills 32

3. Transmission of caloric ; through air and gases, glass, etc.. 32

Opinions of Leslie, Brewster, De la R,oche, and other chemists. 33

Radiant caloric modified by its connection with solar light 33

IV. Theories of Radiation — how many are worthy of notice ?. . 33

1 . Theory of Pictet, described 33

2. Theory of Prevost, do. grounds of preference 33

V. Application of the Theory of Prevost to the Expl. ofvari's Phen

1. The phen. of the mirrors explained ; apparent radiation of cold. . 34

2. Formation of dew, process described and explained 34

Quantity of dew ; dep. upon what? grass, and polished surface. . 34 Why is there no dew in a cloudy night ? 35

VI. Cooling of Bodies — different modes by which it is effected. 35 Velocity of cooling, defined ; law of cooling, according to Newton. 35

VII. Prac. Application of the Laics of Conduct, and Radiant Caloric.

Best materials for windows ; double walls, doors, windows 35

Object of clothing ', kind best for different seasons of the year 36

Effects of Free Caloric.

I. General Lavj — Caloric expands all Bodies; Liquids, Solids, Gases. 1*. Caloric expands solids : illustrated by what ? 36

2. Equal degrees of caloric expand some solids more than others. . . 36 Illustrated by pyrometer ; description of pyrometer 36

3. Effect of equal add'ns of caloric on the same solid at dif. temp's. 37 Expansion of brass and iron rods in the higher or lower temp's. . 37

4. Uniformity in the expansion of certain solids 37

II. ' Caloric expands Liquids more than Solids.

1. Illustrated by heating water in a glass tube, common thermom'r 38

2. Effect upon different liquids of equal degrees of caloric 38

3. Effect upon the same liquids of equal degrees at different temp's 38 Apparent exceptions to the general law that heat expands 38

III. Caloric expands Gases more than Solids or Liquids.

1. The expansion of air ; in glass ball, bladder 38

2 Law of the expansion of gases at all temperatures 39

Difference between gases, and solids or liquids 39

Theory of expansion ; caloric and cohesion, how related ? 39

IV. Apparent Exceptions to the General Law.

Water near the point of congelation ; Illustration 40

V. Force of Expansion ichen Water freezes.

Florentine Academicians ; experiments of Major Williams 40

Theory, or the cause of expansion when water freezes 40

VI. Advantages of this Excep. — wisdom and benevolen. of God 40 Process of freezing water; effect if the contractions continued..-.. 41 Cast iron and antimony, how affected in cooling ? 41

VII. Practical Uses of the General Laio of Expansion and Contract.

Banding of wheels, steam-engine boilers, gallery at Paris 41

Winds ; depend upon what ? land and sea breezes 42

Thermometers ; by whom invented ? , 42

Air thermometers ; plan of Sanctorius, illustrated 42

CON I I

Objections to air for the common purposes of a thermometer. ... 43

2. Differential thermometer of Leslie ; mode of construction 43

Best substance for thermometers ; solids, liquids, or gases ? 43

3. Mercurial thermometer ; construction and graduation. ....... .. 44

Different scales; Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, De Lisle 's, Celsius's <o

4. Register thermometer; construction, object, and principle- 5 of. . . 45 Pyrometers ; derivation and meaning of the term 46

1. Pyrometer of Wedgwood ; founded upon what property 40

2. do. of Daniell ; construction of * 4G

'3. Metallic thermometer of Brequet ; construction, Illustrated 46

Amount of knowledge obtained by therm's and other instruments 47

Sect. 2. Insensible Caloric.

Specific caloric ; meaning of, illustrated 47

Methods of determining specific heat of solids and liquids 48

Laics of Specific Heat, 1,2,3.4,5 48

Practical inference from the doctrine of specific heat 49

Effects of Insensible Caloric.

I. Liquefaction — states in which bodies exist 49

1. Point of liquefaction ; fusion, congelation 49

2. Caloric of fluidity ; Illustr., quantity in different substances.. .. 49

3. Freezing mixtures ; how produced ? salt and snow. 50

4. Limit to the degree of cold ; greatest cold by these processes. . . 51

5. Absolute amount of heat ; estimated by what means ? 52

II. Vaporization — defined, difference between gas and vapor. .. 52

Definition of volatile and fixed bodies ; liquids how vaporized 52

Ebullition ; 1. Boiling point defined * is it fixed ? 52

2. Circumstances* which modify the boiling point of liquids 53

Pressure of the atmosphere ; variations of 53

Barometer, construction and illustration of. 53

1. Law of the boiling point as the pressure diminishes 53

Mercury frozen under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump . . 53

2. Lav/ of the boiling point as the pressure increases 54

Marcet's digester; construction of 55

Absorption of free caloric in ebullition, Illustration £5

Table of the latent heat of different vapors 56

Steam : its formation and laws of expansive force 56

Sensible and insensible caloric of steam at all temperatures. . ... 57

Application of Steam to practical Purposes.

1 . Warming rooms ; water baths, dyeing vats. etc.. 57

2. Steam engine ; invention of, principle illustrated 58

3. Steam generator of Mr. Perkins ; steam artillery 58

Distillation; process illustrated and described 59

Evaporation — difference between it and ebullition 59

1. Evaporation of different liquids ; depends upon what ? 59

2. Effect of increased and diminished pressure upon evaporation. . . 59

3. Extent of surface ; how does it affect the rapidity of evaporation GO

4. State of the atmosphere ; li ' " " " bU

sorption of free Caloric by Evaporation ; cryophorus described 60

6. Cause of evaporation ; how have some accounted for it? 61

7. Uses of evaporation ; cooling rooms, warm climates. 61

Effect of perspiration explained ; fire kings, oven girls 61

Injurious effects of evaporation, miasma, fever and ague G$

1*

CONTENTS.

Hygrometers , reduced to three principles 62

1 . Saussure's hygrometer ; depends upon what property ? 62

2. Leslie's hygrometer ; depends upon what property ? 62

3. Hygrometer Daniell's dew point, how determined . . 62

Application of the Laws of Insensible Caloric to the Expl. Nat. Plien.

1. Processes of thawing and freezing ; effect upon climate 63

2. Effect of vaporization ; to modify the heat of summer 64.

3. Effect of condensing vapors ; rain, source of the cold 61

4. Effect of freezing water; to modify the approach of winter 64

Why are the shores of a country warmer in winter, etc.. ...... 64

Sect. 3. Sources or Caloric and or Cold.

1. Sun ; concentration of its rays, degree of heat 65

2. Chemical action ; combustion defined . 65

3. Condensation ; machinery, friction, percussion 65

4. Vital action ; how is caloric produced in animals ? 66

Sources of cold, what ? 66

Sect. 4. Nature of Caloric

Theory of Sir W. Herschel and Prof. Airy; undulatory theory.... 66 Theory of Newton ; what supposition did he make ? , 66

Chapter II. — Light

I. Physical Properties of Light — belong to what science ? 67

Velocity of light ; disposition of it 67

II. Refection — the circumstances which govern it. 67

III. Refraction — defined, refrangibility, Illustration 67

IV. Decomposition of Light — how many kinds of rays ? 68

1. Colorific rays; mode of separating them by prism, Illustration.. 68 Opinion of Wollaston, of Brewster, illuminating power 69

2. Calorific rays; their position, and degree of refrangibility 6:3

3. Chemical rays ; their position in the spectrum 69

1. Photographic drawing, Ills. 2. Daguerreotype described .. . 61) Magnetic rays ; do they exist ? 70

V. Absorption — denned 70

1. Effect of different surfaces to absorb different colors 70

Why are objects colored? what produces the variety ? 70

2. Effect of chemical constitution upon the power of absorption. .. 70

3. Effect of absorbing all the rays 70

VI. Ignition and Incandescence — artificial light, of oil, lime 71

VII. Phosphorescence — defined 71

1. Solar phosphori ; substances affected by the solar rays 71

2. Phosphorescence from moderate heat ; lime 71

3. Animal and vegetable phosphori 72

VIII. Photometers — object and description of ""2

Photometer of Leslie, of Count Rumford 72

Sources of light ; similar to those of caloric 72

IX. Nature of Light — Newton's theory, undulatory theory 72

CHAPTER III. — ELECTRICITY. Electricity ; mode of producing it 73

Meaning of electrically excited, electrified, cause of it 73

CONTENTS. H

Sect. 1. CoimoN Electricity.

1 Mode of exciting it ; frbtion upon resinous bodies 74

2. Friction upon vitreous substances ; effects of. 74

3. Bodies electrified with each kind ; how affected ? 74

Theories — 1. Theory of Franklin ; positive and negative states. ... 74 2. Theory of Du Fay ; vitreous and resinous, correspond to what ? 74

Inference from the last theory ; law of each fluid 75

Existence of the two fluids shown ; gold leaf electrometer 75

Non-conductors ; defined, conductors, do., insulators 75

Electrical machine described; Ills., direction of currents 76

Induction — defined and illustrated, several conductors 76

Theory of Induction — attraction and repulsion accounted for 77

Application of the Theory.

1. To the spark. 2. Stroke of lightning. 3. Leyden jar 77

4. Electrophorus ; described, illustrated, its use 78

Electrometers or Electroscopes — object of 78

Balance electrometer ; described, uses of 79

Laws of the Accumulation of the Electric Fluid.

} . Quantity of electricity on a conductor ; depends on what? 79

2. Mode of distribution ; on a sphere, ellipsoid, effect of points. ... 79

3. Tendency to escape from points due to what property ? 79

4. Law of attraction and repulsion between two electrified bodies.. 79

Sect. 2. Voltaic Electricity, or Galvanism.

History — discovery of Galvani,liis theory 79

Diseovery of Volta; identity of galvanism, magnetism, etc 80

1. Simple Voltaic Circles — description of. 80

Direction of the positive current; closed and broken circuit 80

Different modes of forming voltaic circles 81

Chemical action necessary to excite currents ; form of battery 81

Calorimotor ; why so calied ? 81

li. Compound Voltaic Circles — 1. Voltaic pile, described 8i

2. Best form of the galvanic battery described 82

Size and number of plates; Hare's deflagrator other batteries.. .83,84 Direction of the currents, relation of electricity to chem. affinity 84

Tlieorics of Galvanism.

I. Theory of Volta. 2. Of Wollaston. 3. Of Davy 85

Laws of the Action of Voltaic Circles.

Difference between quantity and intensity 86

1 . Relation between the exciting liquid and the zinc 86

2 Tension and quantity of electricity in simple circles 86

3 Mode of measuring the energy of voltaic currents 86

Decomposing power; power of deflecting magnetic needle.... 87

4. Velocity of electricity through perfect conductors 87

Effects of Voltaic Electricity or Galvanism.

I. Comparison of Common and Voltaic Electricity.

1. Action of voltaic electricity upon the gold leaf electrometer. . . . 87

2 Leyden jar charged by the battery ; conditions of 87

3. Velocity of common and voltaic electricity ; effects of. , 87

4. Tension of voltaic electricity; striking distance 33

5. Effect of voltaic electricity upon the animal system 8tj

G. Deflection of magnetic needle and chemical decomposition • . . • gg

II. Power of Voltaic Currents to ignite the Metals — Illustration SH Theory ; heating- power of calorimolor, and compound battery. . . . 88

III. Chemical Effects of Galvanism — history 80

1. First substance decomposed ; Illustration . 89

Difference between substances as ascertained by galvanism. .. 90

2. Transfer of chemical substances ; Illustration 90

Theory of Faraday,, of Davy ; electrodes, anode and cathode ... 91

Electroiyzed, electrolyte, ions, anions, and cations 9L

Results of Faraday's Investigations.

1. Decomposition by primary and secondary action 92

2. Compounds which are electrolytes 92

3. Simple substances form ions 92

4. Single ions indifferent to voltaic currents 92

5. Conditions for the decomposition of water 92

6. Substances which form electrodes 92

7. Conditions necessary to electro-chemical decomposition. ...... 92

8. Conduction of electric currents in cells of battery 93

9. Electro-chemical equivalents ; defined 93

Faraday's theory of electro-chemical decomposition 93

Magnetic Effects- of Electricity or Electro-Magnetism.

History ; discovery of Oersted 04

I. Influence of Voltaic Currents upon the Magnetic Needle.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Position of the needle in reference to voltaic currents 94

6. Plane in which a needle moves as related to voltaic currents. . . 95

7. Electro-dynamic action results from what ? 95

Galvanometers or Multipliers ; Illustration 95

Revolving* Rectangle ; described 93

II. Influence of Voltaic Currents upon soft Iron and Steel.

1 . Helix and stand ; description of. 97

2. Kind of pole ; dependent upon what ? Illustration 98

3. Electro magnet '; what weight will it sustain ? 98

4. Magic circle ; description and illustration of 93

5. Vibrating magic circle ; description and illustration of 99

III. Volta- Electric Induction — Separable Helices, described... 101

IV. Magneto- Electric Induction — defined; illustration 105

Magneto-Electric Machine described 105

V Theory of Electro-Magnetism and Magneto- Electricity 106

Application of the theory ; magnetism of the earth ,....«,. 103

VI. Tkermo-Electricity — defined; Illustration 103

VII. Nature of Electricity.

VIII. Use of Electricity — 1 . Medicinal Effects 1 08

2.. Application to the propelling of Machinery 1 09

3. Electro-Magnetic Telegraph ; principle and description 109

4. Electrography ; Electrotype, description of, theory 1 12

PART SECOND. Cause cf chemical changes ; affinity defined I 13

Varieties of Chemical Affinity.

Simple affinity, defined, elective affinity, double elective affinity ... 114

Circumstances which modify Affinity.

I. Cohesion — opposes chemical action, how destroyed ?....,.« 115

1. By pulverization ; Illustration .• • « • 115

2. By solution ; solvents ; saturated solution U(>

Insolubility ; its effect on affinity ; Illustration 116

3. Fusion, defined, effect 117

II. Elasticity — its effect on affinity 117

1. Influence on decomposition , 117

2. Effect of a high temperature upon gaseous mixtures 117

III. Quantity of Mattel' — its effect upon affinity 117

IV. Gravity — specific gravity, effect 118

V. Imponderable Agents — effect of, upon affinity 118

Measure of affinity ; how is the force determined ? Illustration .... 119 Effects of Affinity.

I. Change of Chemical Properties — Illustration 120

II. Change of Color — Illustration ; dropping tube. 120

III. Change of Form — Illustration of 121

IV. Change of Temperature — Illustration . . , 121

V. Change of Specific Gravity — Illustration 1 21

Laws of Chemical Affinity.

I. Indefinite Proportions — defined ;- how many cases ? ....... . 122

II. Definite Proportions by Weight — described 122

1st law ; mode of expressing the ratio of combination 123

Standard of comparison ; equivalent, meaning of 123

Apparent variations of law ; Illustration 123

2nd law ; constitution of each substance fixed 124

Discovery of these laws, by whom, their use 124

III. Definite Proportions by Volume.

Compared with those by weight 123

Atomic Theory ; existence of atoms 12b

Theory of definite proportions by weight ; Illustrated 126

Atomic weight ; absolute weight, magnitude and form of atoms. .. 126

Isomerism, defined, reconciled with definite proportions 127

Cause of chemical affinity } electricity, second causes 1£7

FAST TH1RI3,

Specific gravity ; defined ; standard of comparison „,.«,. J 29

1. Method of obtaining specific gravity of solids 129

2. do of liquids ; aerometer, Illustration. 3. Of gases 130

.Nomenclature — description of, history of, uses 1 30

1. Method of naming simple substances ; table of 1 31

2. Acid compounds receive what terminations, prefixes? etc 131

3. Binary compounds not acid ; prefixes and suffixes. 132

Metals and alloys ; hydrates 133

4. Ternary compounds or salts ; terminations, etc 133

Notation, defined, symbols described, their use 134

Table of the symbols and equivalents of the thirteen non-metallic

elements, and the symbols of their compounds with each other 135

14 CONTENDS