Natural theology considered with reference to Lord Brougham's Discourse on that subject

Preface

The Discourse of Natural Theology by Lord Brougham could not fail to attract very general attention; and on the publication of the work, I for my own part anxiously looked forward to a season of leisure — being confident that I should derive from the perusal of it both pleasure and advantage. Having, besides, heard the Noble Author's volume mentioned, even by some of his Lordship's friends, as " obscure*" and as " hard reading," I wished to ascertain how a Discourse on such a subject could have been composed, so as to be spoken of in that manner. On examining Lord Brougham's production, I found it, as might be expected from the great talents and attainments of the Author, abounding in enlarged and philosophical views of things ; but still there was an impression left upon my mind, by the entire work, that the complaints, respecting obscurity and hard

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reading, were by no means unwarranted. I was moreover astonished at the inaccuracies, which were presented without being sought for, in almost every part ; for of them I had received no intimation.

With regard to the work now in the reader's hands, it was not till I had surveyed the brief remarks which had been put down during the perusal of the Discourse, that I thought of preparing any thing, upon the subject, for the press. It occurred to me that, however I might fail to elucidate what was " obscure" or to facilitate the reading of what was " hard, 11 I certainly should, in many instances, be enabled to correct what was erroneous. The endeavour to effect what I could, in these several ways, would at least require a statement of my own views of Natural Theology; and there probably was no disinclination to leave some permanent foot-marks, on ground over which I had been accustomed to wander from my earliest years.

The Treatise, which suggested the observations contained in the following pages, is in fact a Preliminary Discourse to Paley's Natural Theology,

PREFACE.

illustrated by Lord Brougham and Sir Charles Bell; and we are informed, in the Dedication to Earl Spencer, that the plan of publishing the work, by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, was abandoned, from the apprehension u that the adoption of it might open the door to the introduction of religious controversy among the members of the Society, against their fundamental principles." There is something curious in the notion of a Society not unlikely to be drawn into religious controversy, by a work designed to prove the Being and Attributes of God ; but be that as it may, we cannot but rejoice that the plan has been carried into execution, by the individual exertions of the two eminent persons already named. In the remarks now offered to the world, I have no intention to " open the door to the introduction of religious controversy," among the members of any Society whatever. The remarks might have been made by one whose views of Natural Religion are not very different from those of Lord Brougham ; and they are addressed to such readers as are of opinion that what is written ought to be under-

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stood — and that what is understood ought to be in accordance with truth.

It has long been deemed the glory of Socrates, that he brought philosophy from the schools of the learned to the habitations of men — by stripping it of its technicalities, and exhibiting it in the ordinary language of life. There is no one, \n modern times, who has possessed this talent to an equal extent with Paley; and we can scarcely conceive any one to have employed it with greater success. The transmutation of metals into gold was the supreme object of the Alchemist's aspirations. But Paley had acquired a more enviable power. Knowledge however abstruse, by passing through his mind, became plain common sense — stamped with the characters which ensured its currency in the world. At present, the tendency is in the opposite direction. The disposition is to dignify almost every thing with the semblance of science. Matters which have long been understood, sufficiently for all practical purposes, are worked up into a system ; and the most pliant of ancient languages is ransacked for combinations

PREFACE.

of syllables, to be employed in the service of the new scheme of classification. To correspond with all this, the infant science is taught to speak in phrases of large import, and to use expressions familiar only to the Mathematical Philosophers. Now, it is undoubtedly possible to give, to many departments of knowledge, the formalities here described ; and so, by their aspect at least, to recommend them to men of science: and this appears to have been Lord Brougham's intention with respect to Natural Theology ; for he informs us that "the composition of his Discourse was undertaken in consequence of an observation which he had often made, that scientific men were apt to regard the study of Natural Religion as little connected with philosophical pursuits. 1 ' The intention, indeed, is manifest throughout the Discourse ; and if I do not mistake, the obscurity, which has been felt to pervade the work, arises from His Lordship's manner of communicating to Natural Theology a more scientific character than, in his opinion, had been previously assigned to it. . . . Beyond doubt, the truth of science may exist with

PREFACE, little or nothing of the form ; and in that state the great object of inquiry is, after all, the most accessible to inquirers of every order. Such being the case, whoever ventures to invest any portion of human knowledge with a more scientific exterior, ought to take especial care that it do not, from want of clearness or consistency, appear, to those for whom the change is designed, to have the form of science, with little or nothing of the

truth The reader will bear in mind that these

remarks are intended to direct his attention, and not to bias his opinion. His decision, in the matter under consideration, will depend upon the evidence to be adduced.

It is difficult to speak of the inaccuracies presented by the 'Discourse of Natural Theology . , Of their number, I will only observe, that those persons who would rather go wrong with Lord Brougham, than right with the author of the present volume, will have sufficient opportunities of showing that mark of respect for His Lordship's character. As to the origin of the inaccuracies, they seem to have arisen from the habit of taking

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rapid glances at subjects: — from seeing a little, and so conjecturing the rest. If truth be sought in this manner, the probability is that it will not be found; and no proceeding can be imagined more fatal to the reputation for knowledge.

But however obscure and inaccurate the Discourse may be deemed, it contains many things well deserving the attention of those 44 scientific men, 1 "' for whom it appears to have been mainly designed: — some of whom are described as " men of religious habits of thinking others as 44 free from any disposition towards scepticism, rather because they have not much discussed the subject, than because they have formed fixed opinions upon it after inquiry while 44 the bulk of them rely little upon Natural Theology, which they seem to regard as a speculation built rather on fancy than on argument — or, at any rate, as a kind of knowledge quite different from either physical or moral science." Considering Lord Brougham's extensive acquaintance with men of science, this account of them cannot but be thought important. The whole of it is very remarkable ; and there is

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something far from satisfactory in the information respecting the prevailing opinions on the subject of Natural Theology. In what way the men of science, within Lord Brougham's sphere of observation, have become obnoxious to such a reproach, does not appear. At all events, it is in the highest degree creditable to His Lordship, to have taken so much trouble to effect its removal.

As to the following pages, the object of them is not less to maintain what is conceived to be right in Lord Brougham's Discourse, than to correct what is apprehended to be wrong. Moreover, in executing this latter purpose, the author will not in any instance be found to manifest the slightest disposition to make the most (as it is termed) of his own views of the matter under consideration ; for an attempt of that sort is very seldom much better than an endeavour to leave a false impression on the readers mind. On the contrary, his great aim will be to state facts and opinions as accurately as his power of language will enable him to state them ; at the same time taking the utmost care, that no inferences shall be drawn, without furnishing

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the amplest means of determining their propriety or impropriety.

That, in discussions like those to which the subsequent pages are devoted, the present writer is incapable of adding or altering a single word, for the sake of effect — Lord Brougham would, it is imagined, at any moment, readily avow his belief. The Noble Author would assuredly give the writer credit for the resolution to make truth the object of his researches, and for the intention to state things exactly as they are. His Lordship would probably number him among those who are entitled to express their admiration of the sentiment contained in the following passage : " I look upon the discovery of any thing which is true as a valuable acquisition to society ; which cannot possibly hurt or obstruct the good effect of any other truth whatsoever : for they all partake of one common essence, and necessarily coincide with each other ; and like the drops of rain which fall separately into the river, mix themselves at once with the stream, and strengthen the general current*."

* Middle ton's Works, Vol. I. p. viii. 8vo,

At the head of each division of the present volume, I have specified those pages of the * Discourse of Natural Theology,' to which the division relates ; and previously to the perusal of any such division, I would recommend an attentive consideration of the corresponding portion of the ' Discourse.'

It may he proper to add that the references are made to the second edition of Lord Brougham's work.

INTRODUCTION.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS ARRANGEMENT.

(Discourse, Introduction, pp. 5 — 14.)

Lord Brougham, in the outset of his Discourse, notices the frequent use of the words Theology and Religion as synonymous; and observes that " Natural Theology and Natural Religion are by many confounded together." His Lordship then proposes that Theology should be considered as the science^ and Religion as its subject. According to this distinction, if I rightly apprehend it, we, by means of Theology, investigate and establish the truths of which Religion consists. There is great reason to lament that Lord Brougham, having thus marked the difference between Theology and Religion in general, did not at once present his views of Natural Theology and Natural Religion in particular; and state exactly the objects of the study which he was anxious to recommend to general attention: — for, in the first place — as His Lord-

INTRODUCTION.

ship complains — each of the terms Natural Theology and Natural Religion has had somewhat different significations attached to it by different writers ; and in the second place, as the opening of the work is now left, the reader speedily becomes sensible of a degree of obscurity, which could scarcely have existed had such illustrations of the subject been duly afforded.

The noble and learned author next remarks that "there is, as regards Natural Theology, a more limited use of the word, which confines it to the knowledge and attributes of the Deity; and regards the speculation concerning his will, and our own hopes from and duties towards him, as another branch of the science, termed Natural

Religion, in contradistinction to the former."

Even here we begin to feel the want of those explanations of terms, the absence of which has already been alluded to. It is very difficult to perceive what is intended by " a more limited use" of the term Natural Theology — when nothing has been before mentioned of any use of it at all. Again, His Lordship probably meant to say that the term Natural Theology, in its " more limited use," had been employed to denote, not " the knowledge and

EXPLANATION OF TERMS, &c.

attributes of the Deity," but " the knowledge of the existence and attributes of the Deity."

It is also, I suppose, to be inferred that Natural Theology consists of two parts: — the first part, evincing the being and attributes of God; the second, His designs respecting our existence in another world, and our principles and conduct in the present: — but it would have added greatly to the clearness of the Introduction, if this had been specifically stated; instead of being left to be inferred or not inferred, according to the habits of the reader's mind.

Lord Brougham, however, goes on to exemplify his remark, by referring to Dr Paley and Bishop Butler.

Concerning Dr Paley, His Lordship thus writes:

" Dr Paley hardly touches on this latter branch [the will of God, and our own hopes from and duties towards him] in his hook ; there being only about one-sixtieth part devoted to it, and that incidentally in treating of the attributes. Indeed, though in the dedication he uses the word Religion as synonymous with Theology, the title and the arrangement of his discourse show that he generally employed the term Natural Theology in its restricted sense." (pp. 5, 6.)

There is ample scope for doubt whether Dr Paley held the distinction here attributed to him.

INTRODUCTION.

So far, indeed, as I can judge, neither the title nor the execution of his work tends to prove that he did hold that distinction. When he entitled his Volume — Natural Theology ; or, Evidences of the existence and attributes of the Deity, collected from the appearances of Nature — it is to be inferred that he assumed the term Natural Theology as a compendious and convenient indication of the contents immediately subjoined — rather than that he had any intention of assigning what he conceived to be proper limits to the province of Natural Theology as connected with Natural Religion : — a view of the subject, which his use of the term Natural Religion, as the equivalent of Natural Theology, seems to confirm. Moreover, since the work simply professed to contain Evidences of the existence and attributes of the Deity, collected from the appearances of Nature — any systematic and extended observations, on the " will of God, and our own hopes from and duties towards him," would have been entirely out of place. At the same time, the observations on those topics, which are found towards the close of the work, entitle the Author to greater honour than could have been derived from the most rigid adherence to a faultless plan. They afford an in-

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teresting proof of his reluctance to take leave of an important study, which had long engaged his thoughts; and of his anxiety to impress upon the reader's mind those moral and religious considerations, which were so familiar t«o himself, and so suited to the subject under discussion.

In what manner Dr Paley disposed of "the speculation concerning the will of God, and our own hopes from and duties towards him," may perhaps appear from a few remarks, which I shall venture to offer, on Dr Paley 's works, when regarded as parts of a system. A little attention to them, in that point of view, will render it as certain, as any thing of the kind can be, that the author had no purpose of nicely marking the boundaries between Natural Religion, and the departments of knowledge the most nearly related to it ; and indeed may be the means of preventing some not quite trifling mistakes, in estimating

the literary labours of that extraordinary man

Dr Paley's great object, then, appears to have been — to place every portion of that knowledge, which to responsible agents is of deeper moment than any other, upon what he deemed its firmest foundations. His intention was, that the student

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should begin with his Natural Theology ; in which are to be found, "collected from the appearances of nature," evidences of that fact which supports all the rest; viz. the existence of a Creator and Preserver of all things ; a Being of boundless power and wisdom—whose providential arrangements are obviously formed to promote the happiness of his sensitive creation. Taking this fact as established, Dr Paley's next step — in the first few pages of his Evidences of Christianity — is to show that there are circumstances which appear to give countenance to the supposition, that the Supreme Being may vouchsafe to his rational creatures an express revelation of his will. There are moreover, in the present condition of human life, various indications of a future state of existence. Yet, in Dr Paley's view of the case, these matters need not be strenuously insisted upon. In the Preparatory Considerations to his Evidences of Christianity^ after stating these two propositions — namely, 1. that a future state of existence may be destined by God for his human creation; and 2. that, being so destined, he may acquaint them with it — the author thus proceeds :—

EXPLANATION OF TERMS, &c.

"It is not necessary for our purpose that these propositions he capable of proof ; or even that, by arguments drawn from the light of nature, they can be made out to be probable. It is enough that we are able to say concerning them, that they are not so violently improbable, so contradictory to what we already believe of the Divine power and character, that either the propositions themselves, or facts strictly connected with the propositions (and therefore no farther improbable than they are improbable), ought to be rejected at first sight, and to be rejected by whatever strength or complication of evidence they be attested."

Let us now see by what steps the argument advances : — It is not impossible — say, not utterly improbable — that a Divine Revelation may be afforded to the human race ; but if there ever has been a Revelation, the only method, by which we can conceive its reality to have been evinced, is by Miracles : have then miracles ever been professedly wrought for such a purpose? It is the object of The Evidences of Christianity to prove that on Miracles really wrought was founded the Christian dispensation — a dispensation which, by its internal excellence, recommends itself to our best judgment and feelings, as worthy of the previously - ascertained attributes of God. The truth of Christianity being so established, a new b 2

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importance is given to the present state of existence, by the certainty of its connexion with another : in this way "life and immortality are brought to light." . . . . Dr Paley thus determines that great truth, the probabilities of which, as manifested by the condition of the human race in this world, have been collected by various writers, and made to form part of their systems of Natural Theology. And what is the practical bearing of all the information, natural and revealed, which has been thus afforded? The answer to this question is to be found in Dr Paley's Moral Philosophy; in which he shows that there are grounds for considering the deductions of reason as combining with the precepts of Christianity, in pointing out the principles and conduct which become us, as probationers for eternity. With such intentions, Dr Paley laid before the world, to adopt his own language, "the evidences of Natural Religion, the evidences of Revealed Religion, and an account of the duties that result from both If his entire object be kept in view, there will be no difficulty in understanding why he dwelt but little on several parti-

* Dedication of Natural Theology to Bishop Barrington, culars, which many will deem — -and rightly deem — of real consequence in inquiries of this kind ; which indeed he might, under other circumstances, have himself enlarged upon, as deserving the most serious attention. For instance, it is not, I am persuaded, to be inferred, from Dr Paley's language, that he cared not for " the presumptive proofs of a future retribution from the light of nature*; 1 ' but that he held his own system to be strong and complete without them. In confirmation of this account of Dr Paley's purposes, I refer the reader to a passage near the close of his Evidences of' Christianity ; from which it appears that he considered " the argument drawn from the light of nature" as quite sufficient to show the probability of a future state — that " one truth"" which " gives order to confusion," and " makes the moral world of a piece with the natural." To the same end, I extract the following passage from the concluding chapter of his Natural Theology.

" The existence and character of the Deity is, in every view, the most interesting of all human speculations. In none, however, is it more so, than as it facilitates the belief of the fundamental articles of Revelation. It is a step to

* See Moral Philosophy, Book 11. chap. 3. end.

INTRODUCTION, have it proved that there must be something in the world more than what we see. It is a farther step to know that, amongst the invisible things of nature, there must be an intelligent mind, concerned in its production, order and support. These points being assured to us by Natural Theology, we may well leave to Revelation the disclosure of many particulars which our researches cannot reach, as respecting either the nature of this Being as the original cause of all things, or his character and designs as a moral governor ; and not only so, but the more full confirmation of other particulars, of which, although they do not lie altogether beyond our reasonings and our probabilities, the certainty is by no means equal to the importance."

Having thus endeavoured to elucidate the respective bearings of these popular productions upon each other, let me also state that there are several portions of one of them at the least, I mean his Moral Philosophy, of which I should be very sorry to express any approbation. My notion is that, jealous of the simplicity of his whole plan, Dr Paley rejected much that would have added to the beauty as well as the stability of his structure ; and yet, which is singular, he admitted, in various parts, that which was not wanted — the main effect of such admission being to encumber his ground with objects of weakness and deformity. I may have another occasion to discuss more fully the subject thus inci-

EXPLANATION OF TERMS, &c.

dentally noticed From the preceding estimate of

Dr Paley's views, we shall, at least, be warranted in concluding, that he did not draw the distinction, attributed to him by Lord Brougham, between Natural Theology and Natural Religion.*

But to proceed — Lord Brougham animadverts on the term Natural Religion, as used by Bishop Butler, in the following manner : —

" Bishop Butler seems to have used Natural Religion in a sense equally restricted, but certainly little warranted by custom ; for that portion of his work which treats of Natural Religion is confined to a future state and the moral government of God, as if he either held Natural Religion and Natural Theology to be two branches of one subject, or Natural Religion to be a branch of Natural Theology." (p. 6.)

* In the account of the principal productions of Dr Paley, I have not mentioned the Hora Paulina ; which admirable work must be considered as intended to strengthen the Evidences of Christianity. It has been called the most original of the author's productions ; and in its execution it appears to have been so. It was suggested however, if I mistake not, by the following remarks, at the conclusion of Dr Doddridge's Introduction to his Paraphrase and Notes on the first Epistle to the Thessalonians. — " Whoever reads over St Paul's Epistles with attention will discern such intrinsic characters in their genuineness, and the Divine authority of the doctrines they contain, as will perhaps produce in him a stronger conviction than all the external evidence with which they are attended. To which we may add, that the exact coincidence observable, between the many allusions to particular facts in this as well as in other Epistles, and the account of the facts themselves as they are recorded in the history of the Acts, is a remarkable confirmation of the truth of each."

INTRODUCTION.

Whoever will examine The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the constitution and course of Nature, will find that the author undertook to arbitrate between the friends of Religion and the adversaries of Religion — meaning, by Religion, a system of moral, practical truths, whether deduced by the faculties of the mind or promulgated by Revelation : — in other words, between the friends and the adversaries of Religion, Natural and Revealed. Now, however widely persons may differ, there must be some principles in common, or the matter in dispute can never be decided. What, then, were the common principles in the case under review ? They were two : the being of a God — and the actual constitution and course of nature. And thus, Bishop Butler was led to trace the analogy existing between Religion, Natural and Revealed, on the one hand — and the course of nature, on the other; thereby endeavouring to prove the high probability of their having both proceeded from the same Divine Being, whose existence was admitted on all hands. The signification, therefore, given to the term Natural Religion, may be well accounted for, without supposing the author to have adopted either of the alleged

EXPLANATION OF TERMS, <fcc.

distinctions between Natural Religion and Natural Theology. In confirmation of this opinion,~it may be observed that, when Bishop Butler is not writing with reference to the Analogy, he assigns to Natural Religion a much wider range ; as will appear from the following extract from his Charge to the Clergy of the Diocese of Durham : " Now, the evidence of religion [meaning, both natural and revealed] may be laid before men without any air of controversy. The proof of the being of God, from final causes or the design and wisdom which appears in every part of nature, together with the law of virtue written upon our hearts ; the proof of Christianity from miracles, and the accomplishment of prophecies — .... these evidences of religion might properly be insisted on, in a way to affect and influence the heart, though there were no professed unbelievers in the world." From this extract it appears that, in Bishop Butler's judgment, " the proof of the being of God, from final causes or the design and wisdom which appears in every part of nature," belongs to Religion ; that

is, undoubtedly, Natural Religion With respect

to the Bishop's notions of Natural Theology, as distinguished from Natural Religion, it is not likely that they should be ascertained ; for I very

INTRODUCTION.

much question whether the term Natural Theology is to be found in his writings.

In support of the opinion, which I have virtually avowed, that any science may, when compared with the different departments of knowledge to which it is related, be not improperly held to comprise very different particulars — I take the liberty of adducing some remarks of Lord Brougham, in a note on the Classification of the Sciences (p. 218) : "In all such classifications,' 1 His Lordship writes, " we should be guided by views of convenience, rather than by any desire to attain perfect symmetry; and that arrangement may be best suited to a particular purpose, which plants the same things in one order, and separates them and unites them in one way, when an arrangement which should dispose those things differently might be preferable, if we had another purpose to serve." This is precisely the consideration by which I conceive Dr Paley and Bishop Butler to have been influenced, in the cases under review ; and by which they may be completely justified in what they have done.

To be fully aware of the propriety of Bishop Butler's great work, taking its nature from his own representation, it must be borne in mind that,

EXPLANATION OF TERMS, &c.

during the eighteenth century, appeared certain eminent philosophers, who admitted the being and natural attributes [wisdom and power] of God, and a Divine Providence in the world around us ; but denied his moral attributes, and a future state of rewards and punishments for the human race. Amongst such philosophers Lord Bolingbroke is

to be numbered This casual mention of Lord

Bolingbroke brings to recollection that he was inclined to distinguish between Natural Theology and Natural Religion ; but in what manner, I believe he has not explained.

The foregoing comments on the terms Natural Religion and Natural Theology would appear to render it needless to do more than quote Lord Brougham^ concluding observations upon them : —

" The older writers, Clarke, Bentley, Derham, seem to have sometimes used the words indifferently, but never to have regarded Natural Religion in its restricted acceptation. The ancients generally used Religion in a qualified sense, either as connected with an obligation, or as synonymous with superstition." (p. 6.)