The accordance of religion with nature

Front matter

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UNITED STATES OE AMERICA.

LITURG IM BRITANNICM,

Preface

T HAVE ventured in the following pages to treat of a subject on which Bp. Butler has preceded me. Some apology is necessary for so doing. I may be permitted, therefore, to observe, that I was not induced to make the attempt, because I undervalued that admirable author. On the contrary, a conviction of his extraordinary merit has been at once my strongest motive, and my greatest discouragement, in the prosecution of the task : — my strongest motive, because I have been taught by him, that the Argument from Analogy is, when properly applied, altogether unanswerable ; my greatest discouragement, because I might be thought to invite a comparison with him in the execution of the work, which is what I have of all things most reason to dread. But I nevertheless thought, that the Argument was capable of a more extended and systevi PREFACE.

matic application, than he has made of it ; that by introducing analogies drawn from the inanimate world, and from the phenomena of mind, the argument became more striking in itself ; and that some readers might be thus allured to an examination of the subject, as mere matter of intellectual curiosity. And, again, Butler has omitted to take notice of some analogies in that department of the subject of which he treats, which appear to me to be as convincing as any ; such as those applicable to the subject of Prayer, to the observance of arbitrary institutions, or ceremonies, and several others. But it also seemed to me, that even those parts of the subject which Butler has treated, might possibly be made accessible to a larger class of readers, to whom his style is repulsive, as it is confessedly obscure and difficult. The reader will see, that Part III. is in great measure taken from Butler, as any such argument must be. The Essay would have been incomplete without it, or rather, the strongest portion would have been wanting;.

The greater part of this book consists of

PREFACE. vii

well known facts, in the Philosophy of Mind and of Matter, or in the common course of Nature : but I am not aware, that (excepting what I have taken from Butler) they have been systematically applied to the answering of objections against Religion and its Evidences. I have often drawn from Berkeley, Tucker, Reid, Stewart, and Brown, and sometimes from others: indeed, wherever I could meet with a thought or an expression adapted to my purpose, I have taken it. But I have not filled the pages with references, both because I think this general acknowledgment sufficient, and because many of the thoughts had been collected in a commonplace-book, long before I had any idea of laying them before the public : and I seldom knew myself to what author they belonged, nor even very often what was my own. And, again, if I had given references in some instances, and not in all, I should have seemed to be laying claim to all that was not thus allotted to its proper owner.

The arrangement of the book will perhaps be thought faulty, because the religious doctrines, which are illustrated or defended, in

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many cases do not succeed one another in a connected series. If, however, they had so succeeded one another, much repetition orconstant references to other chapters would have been necessary, because it often happens, that several of these doctrines are illustrated by some one Natural Principle. Repetition was out of the question : and few readers would have been at the trouble of turning back to what was no longer fresh in their recollection. In the Conclusion I have attempted to obviate this objection by putting the argument into a more connected form.

Clifton, near Bristol.

May, 1841.

Contents

Page

Introduction 1

Part I

1 . In her mutual Resemblances 7

2. In her mutual Adaptations 16

3. In the Permanence of her Laws 21

PART II. The Accordance of Religion with our mental, Constitution 35

Chap.

I. That the perception of every Phaenomenon sug-

gests to us the Notion of a Cause 37

II. That all Change suggests to us the Agency of

Mind as its ultimate Cause 43

III. That from Design in the Effect we infer a de-

signing Cause 49

IV. That our Minds are not necessarily connected

with our present Bodies 55

V. That we have Freewill 75

VI. That Belief depends partly on the Will 89

VII. That we have a Prudential Regard for our own

Happiness 93

VIII. That Conscience is naturally supreme 100

CONTENTS.

Chap. Pnge IX. That Reverence and Love are naturally due to Power, Wisdom, Righteousness, and Goodness 112

X. That Belief is produced by human Testimony

in respect to Matters of Fact 118

XI. That Belief is produced by human Authority in

respect to Matters of Opinion 126

XII. That all our Speculative Knowledge is limited. 130

XIII. That Knowledge increases our Speculative Diffi-

culties 141

Part III

e Accordance of Religion with ouk Moral Condition 146

I. That we are subject to a Moral Government.. 150

I I . That we transgress the Laws of this Govern-

ment 154

III. That we are accountable for our Actions 158

IV. That our Happiness depends much on our-

selves 162

1. On our Exertions 166

2. On our Habits 169

3. On the Supremacy of our Moral Faculties. 175

4. Onaprudential Regard to ourown Welfare. 182

5. On our Religion 183

6. On our Knowledge 186

7. On our Opinions 189

8. On our Belief 191

9. On our Observance of arbitrarylnstitutions. 194

V. That our Happiness depends partly on others. 202 VI. That our Happiness depends partly on external Circumstances 205

VII. That Punishment is sometimes averted 207

CONTENTS. XI

CjIAP. Page

1 . By Supplication 207

2. By Repentance and Reformation 209

3. By the vicarious Atonement of others . .. 209 VIII. That Benefits are obtained by Supplication . . 218

IX. That Excellence is best attained by aiming at

Perfection 221

X. That we must often act on probable Evidence. 224

XI. That speculative Knowledge is not necessary

for practical Purposes 226

XII. That our Knowledge is not always in propor-

tion to its utility 230

XIII. That Good is distributed among us unequally. 233

XIV. That the Reception of Truth is often retarded

by Prejudice 236

Part IV

e Accordance of Religion with the general Constitution of Nature 239

I. That Means are used to efTect Ends 243

II. That these Means are apparently circuitous.... 248

III. That they are often apparently inadequate.. .. 252

IV. That their real and their apparent Tendencies

are often directly opposite to each other . . . 256 V. That in the best Things there is a mixture of

Evil 265

VI. That many Things do not fulfil the apparent

purpose of their being 268

VII. That animated Beings every where abound in

Nature, as far as our experience reaches . . 271 VIII. That a Principle of Gradation prevails in Nature 273

IX. That a Principle of Progression prevails in

Nature 279 xii CONTENTS.

Chap. Page X. That the usual Course of Nature is sometimes

interrupted 298

XI. That the Deity constantly superintends the

Universe 303

XII. That many Capacities and Powers are deve-

loped solely by Habit 306

XIII. That all natural Tendencies fulfil useful Purposes, and have corresponding; real Objects. 323

Conclusion 337

Introduction

HE objections which have been made to

JL Religion, Natural and Revealed, are all to be ultimately resolved into its alleged improbability. Either its doctrines are said to be in themselves incredible, that is, not likely to be true; or (allowing their credibility, if supported by sufficient evidence) the actual evidence is said not to be sufficient to render them credible, that is, likely to be true.

By objections of the first class, then, it is asserted, that the doctrines of Religion are such, that we, arguing from the principles of reason, cannot believe them to emanate from the Deity.

JNow, any opinion which we can form on this matter, must, of course, be derived from what we know of the Deity ; and all such knowledge must be collected from what we can see of the present constitution of Nature. All the operations of Nature are conducted according to certain general principles or laws, which are to be ascertained by an induction of facts. Now it will be found, that almost all

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INTRODUCTION.

the truths of Religion (probably all) may be classed under some one or more of these general principles ; and that the general principles contain those very particulars which are objected to in Religion as incredible. In other words, it will be found, that the objections advanced against the religious doctrines are equally applicable to these Natural principles, and, of course, to those undisputed and indisputable facts in Nature, from which the principles are deduced. If the objections, therefore, are really equally applicable in both cases, they cannot be truly applicable in either: they cannot disprove the truth of Religion, unless they can also disprove the reality of the works of Nature.

I beg the reader to observe, that throughout this Essay, I mean by the Constitution of Nature, that of the Universe, both material and moral, including in the latter things sometimes considered as artificial, such as the constitution of society civil and domestic ; — in short, whatever exists by the appointment of the Governor of the world. Perhaps it is hardly necessary to add, that, wherever Nature is spoken of as an operating active power, the Great Author of Nature is always intended. The Natural Principles, or Laws, are classed under three heads — those of our mental constitution — those of our moral condition — and

INTRODUCTION.

those common to the whole constitution of Nature. From this classification, it would seem at first sight, that, since some of the Principles are more general than others, the less general are only partially observed in Nature ; that exceptions to them do exist, and that, therefore, the case of Religion may be one of those exceptions. They are, however, all equally universal, that is, as far as their very nature admits of their being so. For instance, that law of our mental constitution, by which the perception of every phenomenon suggests to us the belief of a cause, does not extend to the material world. But this is only because it is not in the nature of matter to perceive at all. To say, therefore, that this law does not extend to matter, is only to say, that matter is not something else than what it is : and this is surely no proof that the Law is not universal. And so of the rest : they are all universal : they extend through all the works of the Deity, as far as we are acquainted with them.

The whole strength of the argument from Analogy is grounded on the strict uniformity pervading all Nature. But, as it may not be obvious to those who have never considered such subjects, either that the Deity does thus act with strict uniformity throughout all His works, as far as we are acquainted with them ; or that, even allowing this, there may be any

INTRODUCTION.

reason to infer, that He will act on the same plan in other and untried circumstances ; I have, in the First Part, briefly mentioned some of the more obvious proofs of this Uniformity ; and I have then stated the Argument from Analogy, in which some reasons are offered for inducing us to think, that we may probably be governed in a future life on the same general principles, on which this world is now governed.

With regard to the second class of objections (those made to the Evidences of Revelation) they must rest on the ground, that the evidences are not such as to induce reasonable men to act upon them. Now, if it can be shewn, that the believer in Revelation is guided by the same principles of belief, which all mankind, both believers and sceptics, recognize and acknowledge and act upon, under similar circumstances, in the daily conduct of life ; this will shew, that the Evidences are good and sufficient, and the objections to them unsound. This is to be shewn by an appeal to those Laws of our mental constitution, by which we are constantly guided in believing or disbelieving either speculative truth and falsehood, or the common occurrences of life. And I have accordingly endeavoured to shew, that we are really guided by the same principles in both cases.

Part I. The Uniformity Of Nature

HOEVER believes that the universe

* t has been brought into existence by an Allwise Creator, must naturally expect to find, that it has been framed according to some scheme or plan ; and that this plan is an uniform or consistent one, of which the several parts are in harmony with each other. This is indeed no more than we require in a picture or a poem, put together by a human artist. Accordingly such an Uniformity or Unity of character is really found to prevail throughout Nature in a very remarkable manner. Many apparent anomalies no doubt there are, and always will be, as long as our knowledge of Nature remains imperfect. Still we can understand enough of her to be convinced that there is such a plan ; and every increase of our knowledge shews us, that it prevails, where it was unseen before, often where it was least expected. It is to be traced equally in the material and the moral worlds ; equally whether we consider these two great depart-

THE UNIFORMITY OF NATURE.

ments as distinct and separate, or as related to one another.

If, in examining any system or scheme of things, we found in it many striking resemblances, even in those parts which least resembled each other; if we also found that the several parts were all, as far as we could understand them, exactly adapted to one another; and if, lastly, we found that the laws, by which this system was governed, appeared to be perfectly stable and permanent : if all this was found to be the case, such a scheme of things would, I think, be considered to be generally uniform, and of a piece : it would be thought to be stamped with the hand of one consistent Artificer. Nor would the inference be shaken, because some parts of this scheme were beyond the comprehension of the observer ; more especially if it had been always found, that, in proportion as it had become better understood, fresh proofs of uniformity had been manifested, and apparent anomalies had constantly disappeared ; but that no one real inconsistency had ever been proved.

Let us then examine Nature in this point of view, by considering, I. The mutual resemblances both of structure and of the laws by which she is governed ; II. The mutual adaptations of her different parts ; III. The permanence of her laws.

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I. Many of the mutual resemblances of Nature are open to the observation of the most careless spectator, though, from the very fact of their being always before his eyes, he may never have considered them in the light of resemblances. Thus animals of the same species all resemble each other in innumerable particulars ; and the same is the case with vegetables and minerals. All the several species have, again, many common points of resemblance : so have different genera, orders, and classes. Some of them are sufficiently obvious, as for instance that all animals have powers of spontaneous motion, and organs for the reception of food : others less obvious, as that all vertebrated animals have a brain, that their skeletons are all built after the same general plan.

Many of these resemblances are only brought to light by the researches of science. Very curious ones are to be found in Geometry, such as, that the three angles of any triangle are together equal to two right angles, that is, resemble them in quantity ; that in all rightangled triangles the square of the greater side is equal to the squares of the remaining sides added together. Geometry is full of such resemblances : indeed geometrical thorems consist of nothing but proofs of them. Algebra is a method of calculating all sorts of quantities

THE UNIFORMITY OK

NATUUL.

by means of general characters : and the possibility of doing this proves, of course, points of resemblance existing between number and magnitude ; and Algebraic equations are nothing but the expressions of these. Resemblances exist between the processes of respiration and combustion ; between magnetism and electricity; between animals and vegetables in the sexual system. Curious analogies are to be traced between the phenomena, of light, of heat, and of sound : and these again are all reflected according to the same laws by which elastic balls rebound from surfaces. There is a spot in the retina of the eye, which is insensible to the action of light, so that an object placed before it in a particular direction cannot be seen, if the other eye is closed. So there is also some pitch of sound, varying with different persons, to which every ear is insensible, though sounds either graver or more acute can be distinctly heard : so that some men have never heard the chirping of a grasshopper, others that of a sparrow : while others are unable to hear very grave sounds, f

Again, two strong lights may be so placed as to produce a spot of darkness either on the eye or on a sheet of paper. Two musical strings may be made to vibrate in such a f Brewster's Natural Magic, p. 232.

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manner, as that their sounds shall at certain intervals destroy one another, and produce moments of absolute silence. ij:

If the eye is fixed on a spot of red, and then turned to a white surface, it will immediately see a spot of green, the complemental colour of red (or that formed by a mixture of the two other primary colours, blue and yellow) all together making up the harmonious triad, or concord. And so with any other given colour. A similar thing happens in music. When any given note is sounded on an instrument, it is instantly followed by those which form a chord and are called the harmonics. These resemblances are particularly striking, because we cannot perceive the purpose of them ; and therefore it appears to our ignorance as if they had been contrived merely with the view of preserving analogies unbroken. And this last observation is particularly illustrated by what physiologists call rudimental organs. Not only do all organs and their functions exist in all different degrees of development and perfection in different kinds of animals ; but in some are to be found merely the rudiments of an organ, without its appropriate function. Feet are found beneath the skin of the serpent, useless in all appearance to the animal ;

I Brewster's Natural Magic, p. 196.

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but they keep up the analogy with quadrupeds. And there are many similar instances.

And yet a very small portion of these resemblances has been discovered by man ; as we may learn from the ditficulties encountered in the most skilful attempts to form any Natural systems of Classification for the several objects of Nature. Resemblances more or less numerous must be embraced in every classification, whether Natural or Artificial ; as every attempt to form such classification must be founded on a conviction of their reality. Linnaeus constructed his system on a comparatively small number of resemblances arbitrarily selected. It is the object of a Natural System, to classify objects according to all the resemblances or affinities, which permanently exist between them ; not alone the resemblances of external character, but also those of their habits, properties, organization, and functions. Its several divisions into species, genera, orders, classes, or any other denominations, have no other foundation than this of resemblance. It is a proof of the number and wonderful variety of these resemblances, that naturalists have found it impossible to express them by names or definitions ; but are obliged to have recourse to the method of types, or examples eminently possessing the

THE UNIFORMITY OF NATURE.

characters of the several groups. It is a proof of the systematic order which regulates all this variety in Nature, that a Natural Classification may be formed on a consideration of any one class of these resemblances, independently of the rest : we may be guided equally by resemblances of external character, or of habit, or of properties, or of organization, or of function. For, whichever of these we follow out, the resulting Classification will be the same : so that all Natural Systems may be tested by this maxim, " that an arrangement obtained from one set of characters, shall coincide with an arrangement obtained from another set."t

Such systems, then, must be pregnant with proofs, not merely of Resemblances here and there occurring, and which can, therefore, be thought to be casual ; but of a systematic plan, arranged with the most exquisite order and unity of design, combined with infinite variety. Being devised too by men of science, for scientific purposes, the systems cannot be vague or indefinite ; and must, therefore, be founded on Resemblances precise and well defined.

In the moral world the same Uniformity prevails. Animals of the same species are endowed with the same instincts. Human t Whewell's Philos. of Induct. Science, vol. i. p. 521.

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beings have all similar mental powers, as those of Memory, Belief, the five senses : and their minds are subject to the same general laws, as those of Association, of Attention, of Memory. Even the disputes about Freewill imply the reality of such laws : for none ever thought of maintaining that some men's minds naturally acted by freewill, and others by necessity. Whichever is the fact, both parties admit, that that fact depends on some fixed principle, applicable alike to all mankind. The rise and fall of empires depend on regular and uniform laws, however difficult these may be of investigation : else no man would have troubled himself to search them out. There are many laws so extensive in their operation as to be applicable equally to the material and to the moral creation : such is the axiom, that things which are equal to the same, are equal to each other ; which is equally indispensable to the truth of a mathematical theorem, and of a syllogism in Logic ; and shews, therefore, a resemblance even between physical quantity and moral truth. All the General Principles stated in Part IV. of this Essay, are instances of Laws applicable alike to the moral and the material worlds.

Whatever things are called by the same name, resemble one another more or less ; and, therefore, we have a short but decisive proof

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of the vast number of these resemblances, in the use of General Terms among mankind. General Terms express nothing but the Resemblances which exist between the various objects of our knowledge. The most general, such as Being, Substance, Quality, express points of agreement existing between all the works of Nature without exception. The terms Matter and Spirit imply points of similarity, such as Penetrability and Impenetrability, between most comprehensive classes of beings. And the less general the term becomes, the more numerous are the points of resemblance : animals resemble one another in many particulars, quadrupeds in more, dogs and horses in still more.

It is the same with the names of Qualities, as Hardness, Fluidity, Colour ; with those of Functions, as Digestion, Respiration : in these and in numberless others, millions of different beings resemble one another.

And, so again, Laws of Motion, of Crystallization, of Definite Proportions, express by their very terms, that they are uniform ; " they express what will happen in certain general contingencies."

There is, indeed, no object of our knowledge which may not be brought under some general term : and these make up so great a part of language, that many books contain not a single word which is not a general one : and of these, every one expresses always some resemblances, often a vast number : an evident proof how universally they prevail in Nature.

But these Resemblances are not confined to our own earth. We can trace some of them to the most distant parts of the Universe. The planets have all, like our own earth, their poles and permanent axes of rotation. They are subject, like her, to the laws of Light, to the periodical division of their time into days and years. What are called the Fixed Stars are most of them too distant for us to ascertain whether they resemble our own system, in these particulars or not : but in other particulars, which we can ascertain, they do resemble it. Absolutely infinite as they are to our comprehension, not one has been found which is not globular, like the planets and the earth. They are all subject to the Laws of Light. Some of them at least obey the Laws of Gravitation. Whether they all do so, we are at present ignorant, since their splendour* conceals their satellites (if they have any) from our sight. But it is known, that between thirty and forty Binary Stars revolve about each other in elliptical orbits like those of the

* It is calculated that the light of Sirius (the nearest of them) is at least double that of the sun.

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planets ; and that the Law of their velocities is also the same. In one hundred and four of these Binary systems, the two stars exhibit the complemental colours ;| and thirteen Periodical Stars, by appearing and disappearing at regular intervals, lead to the belief of their obeying the same universal Law of Gravitation.! All the Heavenly bodies, too, (including the Nebulae §) revolve in one uniform direction. The analogies extend, too, from the largest masses to the minutest particles : as the Heavenly bodies are all globular, so are the ultimate particles of matter on our earth : as those worlds have their opposite poles, so have these little particles: and both equally obey the Laws of Gravitation.

We are impressed with the Uniformity of Nature, when, within the circuit of our own globe, we ascertain that the same Law, which we had first observed acting upon a very small scale, holds good equally upon the largest; when we find that that Law of atmospheric pressure, by which a fly hangs suspended from a ceiling, enables the walrus to scale an iceberg ; that those Laws of chemistry, which t Nichols' Architecture of the Heavens, p. 92. X Ibid. p. 92.

§ Some of these are clusters of innumerable stars, so distant as to appear only like mist, others seem to consist only of a hazy scattered light.

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were first developed in the laboratory, produce the thunderstorm and the earthquake. But how greatly is that conviction strengthened, when we find that such analogies extend to the Heavenly bodies. Yet so it is :

" That very Law, which moulds a tear, And bids it trickle from its source,

That Law preserves the earth a sphere, And guides the planets in their course."

II. The mutual adaptations of Nature are to be considered. And these too are to be found equally in the material universe and the moral world, taken separately, and in the two considered in relation to each other.

1. Vegetables are fitted to afford nourishment to animals, animals to be nourished by vegetables. The atmosphere is adapted to supply breath and nourishment to animals and plants : the whole economy of animals and plants is prepared for making use of these supplies.

Instances of adaptation in the different parts of animals are innumerable. " If the viscera of an animal are so organized as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, it is also requisite that the jaws should be so constructed as to fit them for devouring prey : the claws must be constructed for seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its

TFIE UNIFORMITY OF NATURE. 17 flesh ; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing and overtaking it ; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a distance. Nature must also have endowed the brain of the animal with instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to catch its necessary victims." j" And so constant are these adaptations, that a skilful Comparative Anatomist is enabled, by examining almost any one bone of an unknown animal, to ascertain its whole general form and kind.

The size and strength of all animals are carefully adapted to the power of Gravitation. Were man, formed as he is at present, placed on the surface of Jupiter, he would be instantly crushed beneath his own weight. The same thing would happen, if an animal were placed upon earth many times exceeding the elephant in size, and formed of similar materials. Even far within these limits it would become so unwieldy as to be quite unfit for motion. But these restrictions do not apply to animals inhabiting the water. Accordingly the whale is many times larger than the elephant.

These adaptations too, are not confined to our own world : they give it a relation and a connection with the distant parts of the Universe, uniting both as parts of one uniform t Cuvier.

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system. The earth, and the other planets, and the satellites of each, and the sun, all have their respective magnitudes adapted to each other, and to the Law of Gravitation : so that it seems as if the very smallest deviation in any one from its present scale would throw the whole system into confusion. The adaptations extend to the Fixed Stars, as far as ive are able to ascertain, that is, to the Binary and Periodical Stars. The sun sends forth light and heat, and all the heavenly bodies supply light : our atmosphere is fitted for transmitting and modifying these, and the whole economy of plants and animals is formed to derive health and nourishment and enjoyment from them : while heat and light, again, would be unfit to perform these their destined offices, if they were not thus modified and prepared by their passage through the atmosphere. The adaptation of the mechanism of the eye to the light of the Fixed Stars is by itself a sufficient proof, that the most distant parts of the Universe were created upon one uniform and consistent plan.