Considerations on the theory of religion

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Part I. Want Of Universality

IN

NATURAL AND REVEALED RELIGION,

NO JUST OBJECTION AGAINST EITHER.

Is lie the God of the Jews only ? Is he not also of the Gentiles ? Yes, of the Gentiles also, —Rom, iii. 29,

WANT OF UNIVERSALITY

IN

NATURAL AND REVEALED RELIGION.

NO JUST OBJECTION AGAINST EITHER.

ACTS xvii. 30.

The Times of this Ignorance God winked at, but novo commandeth all men every where to repent.

THESE words contain a declaration'of God's gracious purpose to reclaim mankind by the coming of Christ; and at the same time intimate the preference due to this, above any former institution. In the foregoing verses the Apostle had been instructing the Athenians in the nature of the true God, and his universal providence. He shews them that there is one common father and supreme governor of the world, who has made this earth a fit habitation for the sons of men, and distributed them over the face of it; who has distinguished the seasons, and divided the nations, and fixed the bounds and periods of each # , in so very regular

* See Bryant on Ancient History, p, 162, &c.

B 2 and wise a manner, as might lead all diligent observers of them to a knowledge of their author ; and put them upon seeking out some proper method of expressing their devotion to him. Though here in fact (as the Apostle intimates, ver. 27. ), they were all but like men poring in the dark; their notions of the Deity imperfect and obscure ; their worship equally absurd and irrational.

This their ignorance God was pleased for some time to wink at (yirs§ifciv), to overlook, disregard, or, as it is in a parallel place*, He suffered them to "walk in their own ways, to wander through the various sects of superstition and idolatry into which they had fallen : but now he commandeth all men every where to repent; or rather publishes, (sragay/gXA«) proclaims the tidings of salvation to all men upon the fair and easy terms of repentance and reformation ; he offers a new covenant to mankind in general, from the benefits whereof none are absolutely excluded who sincerely desire them: — tidings, which ought to be received by all, as they were by the first converts, with joy and gratitude.

But, how strangely has the face of things been altered, or rather, the whole nature of them inverted since ! When, through the degeneracy of mankind, the benefits of this divine institution become restrained to a few people ; and these are taught to despise it, for that very reason which

* Acts xiv. i& uses to make a benefit the more valuable, namely, because it is restrained to themselves !

If, say the present unbelievers, God has made of one blood all nations of men, and is no respecter of persons; if he designs this revelation for all men, as he must, if it would be of so great use and advantage to them ; — Why then is it not actually communicated to all ? — Why did he so long, — Why does he still — xvink at the ignorance of so many nations, and leave them without any means of coming to the knowledge of his truth ? Can a God of infinite power, and wisdom, be disappointed in his aim? Or, will the common father of mankind confine his greatest mercies to so very few of his children? — And thus every argument of the superior excellency of our religion becomes an objection to its divine authority; and what should be a peculiar motive to a thankful acceptance of it, is made one of the chief pretences for contemning and rejecting it.

In my following discourse I shall consider that part of this objection, which relates to the manner of conducting the Christian dispensation ; the other, which more immediately affects the time of its delivery, being reserved to a more full examination afterwards.

In answer therefore to this part of the foregoing difficulty, I shall endeavour to prove in the first place,

I. That a partial communication of Christianity can be no particular objection to its divine authority, since the religion of nature is on the same foot with it in this respect.

II. I propose to shew the wisdom and goodness of the divine conduct in the dispensation of both. And,

III. The great benefit of complying with the terms of the gospel, and the inexcusableness of rejecting it.

I. I am to shew that a partial communication of Christianity can be no particular objection to its divine authority, since the religion of nature is on the same foot with it in this respect.

As the all -wise Creator of the universe has been pleased to frame different orders of intellectual beings, so he has made a considerable difference among those of the same order. In mankind the case is very evident. We cannot but observe a vast disparity between both the abilities and advantages of some, and those of others ; their tempers of body, and powers of mind, and circumstances in the world; their education, opportunities, and ways of life ; the station they are in, or the government they live under.

Now, these are so many talents, which together constitute our portion of reason, and severally contribute to the forming our understanding, and improving our nature. As these then are so very unequally distributed ; 'tis plain that our religious notions, or our law of nature, must be very different and unequal also. The bounds of duty will be as various as the degrees of knowledge in every man, and likewise be enlarged in proportion to the gradual improvements in the same man.

To speak therefore of one Jixt, immutable, and universal law of nature, is framing an imaginary scheme without the least foundation in the real nature of things ; nay directly contrary to the present order of the whole creation : 'tis making the same rule suit beings in all circumstances ; which is equally absurd, as to prescribe the same specific regimen to all constitutions.

To style this religion of nature absolutely perfect, or its light sufficient; can only mean, that every one may be as perfect here as God intended him to be, and able to do all that his Creator will require of him ; or so much as is sufficient to excuse him from wrath and punishment : which is very true, but nothing to the purpose : for this kind of perfection is far from implying an universal, and unchangeable equality in the law of nature itself, or excluding greater light ; since it may be very consistent with that diversity of talents abovementioned, and those different degrees of happiness and perfection, which are founded in, and naturally resulting from it.

As therefore all the gifts of nature are distributed in this unequal manner, how unreasonable is it to object against revealed religion, for its being conveyed in the very same manner! One who believes any thing of a God and his providence, will naturally suppose, that if any revelation were made to mankind, it would be made according to the same method which is observed in the government both of the natural and moral world ; at least, he that allows this to be consistent with the belief of a Deity in the one case, cannot on that very account reject the other*.

Thus much may be sufficient to shew, that natural and revealed religion are upon the same foot in point of universality ; and that the objection holds equally against both of them. And I have been the more brief on this head, as it has been fully discussed by able writers t.

II. Let us proceed therefore in the second place, to point out the wisdom and goodness of the divine conduct in both these dispensations.

* Chubb, in his discourse on Miracles, p. 48, &c. endeavours to invalidate this observation, by asserting, that the two cases are not parallel, because the one could not have been better constituted ; which, he thinks, cannot be made appear concerning the other. But, if it be shewn that the like, or greater inconveniences would flow from any other assignable way of conveying revelation (which will be attempted in the following part of this discourse) ; then we have the same reason to assert, that it could not upon the whole have been conveyed in a better way; and consequently, the objection drawn from its want of Universality, will.be of no more force than that from inequality is in the common course of nature ; and the two cases will still be exactly parallel. Nor can I find the least proof of the contrary in Lord Bolingbrofa's declamation, (Works, vol. iv. p. 293, fyc.) except what arises from the arbitrary supposition of some few divines, and is here sufficiently obviated near the end of Part II.

t See Conybear's, Foster's, or S. Broivne's Defence of Revelation; or, Denne's Sermon on the Propagation of the Gospel; or more at large in Butler's Analogy, &c. p. 181, 215, &c. 8vo. or Sykes on Miracles, p. 204, &c.

1st. Of Natural Religion ; which, as we have seen, is proportionable to the different abilities and attainments of mankind; as these generally arise from their different stations and conditions; both which we shall find exquisitely adapted to the well-being of the world.

For, in the first place, society is requisite, in order to supply the conveniences, the comforts, and the necessaries of life, as well as to secure the quiet use, and safe possession of them. To preserve society among such frail, fallible, and refractory beings as constitute the bulk of mankind, there is need of government, which implies different stations and conditions; as these again call for different abilities and qualifications. All, 'tis plain, cannot be governors, nor enjoy the benefits which attend some posts of wealth and power: the many have nothing left them but to obey, to execute the will of their superiors, and undergo the drudgeries of life*.

The same holds in the body politic, as in the natural ; there must be many inferior and more feeble members, which yet are necessary ; neither can the head say to the feet, I have no need of you.

But, if all these different members of the com-

* Illi ergo omnes conditi sunt ut haec opera praestent, quibus in civitate opus est; conditus est autemvir scientia praeditus sui gratia: [i. e. ob finem quern adeptus est, sc. scientiam] atque ita simul colitur terra, et reperitur sapientia. Quam scite ergo dixit ille, quisquis fuit, Nisi essent stulti desolaretur terra! Maimon. Porta Mos. p. 4?1. Vid. Eccl. xxxviii. 32, 34% & Holberg. N, Klim. p. 133.

10 OF THE WANT Q¥ UNIVERSALITY

munity had naturally the self-same sense and relish of things; if each man had originally and unchangeably the highest degree of understanding and acuteness; the greatest strength of reason, and fineness of imagination that is to be met with in any of the species, how very incongruous must this unavoidable diversity of orders prove! How hard would be the case of them, whose lot is to fill the worst and lowest offices, and yet who find themselves as well qualified for, and as highly deserving too of the best, as those that hold them ; and who likewise cannot but be as deeply sensible of all that hardship and disappointment which arises from the want of them ! The common intellect and apprehension of man would be but ill placed in an ox or ass ; nor would the genius and temper of some philosophic mind be any better suited to him that driveth them, and is occupied in all their labours.

But this must necessarily be the state of things, if all men were by nature furnished with all those intellectual accomplishments, which adorn some few of them at present. Three parts in four of the world must be unfit for their particular circumstances, and at odds with their condition.

How inconsistent also would it be in nature to implant those various senses, appetites, and tastes in all men, which not one in a thousand would have power to gratify! — that sublime degree of reason and reflection, which often could only prove its own tormentor!

Not to mention what ill influence such a scheme would have on government itself ; how difficult it must be to rule, where every one has the same strength and skill ; how disagreeable to obey, when all have equal abilities, and therefore (as they might reasonably imagine) an equal right to be their own directors. # In short, how much more wise and beneficial is the present constitution of things ! where all is left in a great measure to mankind themselves, who have both the forming and disposing of each other; nay, where men are at liberty to frame their own natures, and dispositions : where they have no inconvenient or pernicious principle to lay to nature's charge t; no properly innate notions, or implanted instincts t; no really original appetite or affection, to sway or bias them ; except that universal sense, and uniform desire of happiness, which was absolutely necessary to their preservation (a).

f See Ibbotfs Boyle* s Led. 2d set, Serm. V. p. 143, &c. or King's Origin of Evil, note 38, p. 189, 4th edit.

| See Prelim. Diss, to King, and Rem. i. p. J5, 4th edit.

(a) To such as are desirous of forming more precise notions on the present subject, let it be observed, that when the first

By these means we have at first only such thoughts and inclinations instilled into our minds

foundation of a diversity of sense and intellect is once laidfin a greater or less susceptibility of pleasure or pain, by a perception of ideas more acute or dull, more quick or slow, and a proportioned reflection on them, — from hence the whole tribe of affections, &c. and the several degrees in each, are very apparently deducible: supposing only this, I say, which seems to lie in the original stamina of the body, and is so far not to be accounted for, at least by me ; which therefore, and which only I should term innate or strictly natural; since every thing besides, that is comprehended under the name of natural appetite, &c. is so far from being such, that it is evidently posterior in the order of nature, and entirely grounded on the ideas which themselves arise from hence, and whose innateness in all senses of that word is now generally given up : — supposing then this one foundation laid by nature, a difference herein will be enough to constitute the Being more or less sensible, or rational in general ; and tend to make it more or less passionate or mild, eager or indolent, &c. with regard to whatsoever it applies itself: but, can this ever actually determine it to any one peculiar set of objects, or have any tendency towards giving what we mean by a particular genius, taste, or temper? That, and the principal constitution of the human mind, or its predominant qualities, seem to arise afterwards from the particular associations which we form ourselves, or learn of others, as these grow gradually, and even mechanically from the circumstances we are in, or from those objects that more immediately surround and strike us*; provided that a suitable attention and regard be paid to each as it presents itself.

For that amidst all this mechanic apparatus we have such a distinct faculty of attending, and determining the subordinate powers in consequence thereof, as is stated at large by Abp. King, I must beg leave to suppose, till all the various appearances, which seem so much to require it (of which in the following note *) are solved on other principles ; and then indeed this,

* See Hartley's Observations on Man, Part I. A book well worth the pains required to understand it, and which I must recommend, as exhibiting a very cuas are agreeable to, and for the most part do in fact arise from our particular place and circum-

will be of course excluded. I may add here, that neither are those associations themselves, from whence some very ingenious persons would deduce a total mechanism, altogether necessary ; nor we so far passive under them, as to be left without a power of curbing and correcting, breaking and eradicating ; as well as of contracting them at first, and afterwards confirming them : to assert this would be advancing a new doctrine of habits contrary to the general sense and language of mankind.

Well then, allowing such a degree of liberty, or active power, to be joined with the other passive ingredients in our composition, as such, it must in some measure act independently on each of them, and be capable of forming new associations from its own proper acts, which will extend to all the rest, and influence them: and yet as it will also have some such connection with them all, as to be itself in some respect or other influenced by them reciprocally ; or (which comes to the same thing) the mind will be so affected in and through them as to influence it ; which we all daily feel : [else how come these parts of our constitution to be constantly applied to with success for the determination of it? Why is pain present or in prospect used to move a man, or arguments and motives urged, if they are really matters of indifference to his choice, and have no natural effect upon it?] As this grows and gathers strength, like all our other faculties ; and is equally capable of being impaired, and rectified again*: — As it is limited and subject to its laws, not perhaps rious history of the human frame, and well founded in the main; though the ingenious author carries some points, particularly that of mechanism, farther perhaps, than either experience seems to justify, or we are at present willing to allow. Perhaps it exceeds the power of man's understanding to decide where mechanism ends, and where the liberty of indifference (the only notion of liberty that comes up to the purpose) may be supposed to commence. However, it seems clear that some share of each is to be admitted into our composition, as well towards solving several phenomena, as giving due satisfaction in the great articles of religion and morals; and that after all the attempts of the most able writers on this subject, neither principle can be wholly excluded. * King, note X. p. 360. 4th ed.

14 OP THE WANT OF UNIVERSALITY

stances in the world; and afterwards find room enough to refine and enlarge our faculties \ to

wholly different, though of a kind distinct from those of the other appetites : (however, such as make it no less governable *), and cannot go against these appetites without manifest pain and misery to the person f : — As it may be inclined, both by them and its own course of operation, and will become daily more and more conformed to them, by a duly regular exercise ; which we likewise experience; — its operations will become as much the objects of foreknowledge; nor will it be much less easy to account for either the formation, or increase of any particular turn of mind, in any given situation, than if all were performed in us necessarily, and at once.

This plan of human nature, which derives every thing from a few clear principles, and yet makes room for that endless variety conspicuous in it, might, I am sensible, be set in a good light, and shewn to be free from some of the greatest difficulties that must clog all others. In this view, a just uniformity is, by the Deity, so far as his immediate acts reach, in all cases, and might be by us, generally, preserved among all its constituent parts; our talents suited to our capacity of using them ; our sphere enlarged, as that increases; and keeping pace with our improvements ; in short, each dispensation put upon a reasonable foot ; and all discoveries made in due proportion to our qualifications for judging of them, and our dispositions to apply them. Whereas the contrary scheme, of bringing every thing to an original, equal, and immediate intuition ; or of fixing every man to certain impulses, or instincts, independent on his station and endeavours, and intirely unimproveable by them ; — this must be quite arbitrary, and in a great measure useless ; and attended with all the inconsistencies and inconveniencies already mentioned.

Such would be the consequences of that pretended universal equability, in natural religion; nor is the levelling scheme, so much contended for in revelation, less absurd, as will appear below.

qualify ourselves for, as well as, by a right application of them, thus far, merit, some superior station, whenever that shall become void. How regular and beautiful a subordination must this soon produce! How fitly might the whole body, thus knit together and compacted by that which every joint supplieth, increase with the increase of God, would man but enter into the same plan of exciting industry, and do whatever lies in his power to promote it, viz. entail benefits and successes on a proficiency in these endeavours, — suit every one's station to his respective merit and abilities; i. e. deal with each person according to what he is, and observe those rules which the great God of nature has established!

What emulation must this raise, joined with the utmost care and caution, when each person finds it so much in his power to improve and advance, as well as to impair and degrade his nature; and thereby also change his state! what eagerness to excel some! what apprehension of falling below others! what encouragement for all to make the best use of their several faculties and opportunities! This amicable contest must certainly make more for the good of the whole, than if all had been merely passive, and absolutely fixed in any assignable degree of knowledge and perfection; or limited unalterably to any one condition (£).

(b) See King, Or. E. note 19, p. 108, &c. and note Y, p. 398, &c. We may add, that the supposition of any such fixed, unim-

Upon this plan alone could there be place for hope or fear, reward or punishment, the only proper means of governing free, rational agents ; and of conducting them to their supreme and truest happiness, which seems to consist in agency; and which can only this way be excited*. This therefore is the method most agreeable to wisdom and goodness, and in consequence most worthy of Godt.

Having thus far considered the partial distribution of the gifts of nature, and consequent diversity of natural religion, and offered some hints towards explaining the reasonableness and necessity thereof; I proceed to shew the same concerning revelation.

If a revelation were to be made at all, (and I must here' take it for granted that such a thing

provable state of natural good implies, strictly speaking, no less than the subversion of all virtue or moral good; which is nothing but the choosing to communicate the former. [See King, R. i. p. 75) ?6, 4th edit.] for which communication there could be no place in such a state, nor consequently any room for any of those agreeable ideas which are founded on it.

Nor does this scheme any better consult the interest of our intellectual accomplishments ; which, while it seems to be exalting them, is at the bottom taking away all their use and exercise: while it pretends to constitute an equality among rational agents, is really destructive of both rationality, and agency.

* See King, p. 216, 298, 311, 324, 335, 348, &c. with the following note [e] and Fosters Wisdom of God in the various ranks and subordinations of human Life. Serm. viii. vol. 2.

f See this described more at large in Bp. Butlers Analogy, p. 93, &c. 2d edit.

is neither impossible nor unreasonable in itself,)* it must be conveyed in the method we are told it was, namely, at first communicated to some few select persons, and by them divulged, and gradually propagated to the rest of the world (c); or

* See Jenkin, vol. i. c. 1, or Mrs. Newcomes Enquiry into the evidence of the Christ. Rel. § 8.

(c) Chubb (on Miracles, p. 68, &c.) objects to this first method, that hereby it would be in the power of a few men to deprive the rest of all the benefits of this revelation.

But is not that really the case in all the other benefits of nature, and the ordinary gifts of providence ? Are not most of the blessings of life communicated to us by the mediation and instrumentality of other men, who may be just and faithful in communicating them, or otherwise? and it is not oft in the power of a single person to deprive multitudes either of life itself, or any of its comforts ; of liberty, peace, plenty, arts, improvements, &c. ? and is not all this unavoidable while men are allowed the free use of their natural powers, which Chubb himself contends for ? Men, he says, are not to be over-ruled in either the publication or reception of religion; and if so he has yet to explain how that is to be given so as not to leave it in the power and pleasure of a Jew, sooner or later, to restrain and suppress, to disguise and corrupt it ; and consequently to prevent thousands and millions of others from sharing in the benefits thereof, ib. p. 63. On a little farther consideration such writers may probably find, that on the plan "of human liberty, it must be impossible for any thing relating either to the minds, or outward circumstances of mankind, to remain in a state of perfect uniformity; and then they may be sensible too that the same causes, which among other things that concern mankind, make their religion unavoidably continue in this partial and unequal way, will hold as strongly for its being originally given in the same way.

Chubb's second objection, That if men could be supposed to be honest and faithful in the publication of a system of revealed religion, then there would be no occasion for such system, ib. seems to be worse founded than the other ; since this revelation, notwithstanding all the imperfections that attend its communi-

c

18' OP THE WANT OF UNIVERSALITY

secondly, every particular man must have it by immediate inspiration ; and be at all times, and in all cases, influenced and directed to it internally ; or thirdly, it must be published again and again, and fresh miracles worked for the conviction of each unbeliever in every age.

In the second of these methods the inconveniences are very obvious: for this influence, of what kind soever it is, must either be absolutely efficacious and irresistible, i.e. so strong as to subvert the natural powers of man, and take away his freedom of thinking and acting; and consecation, may still be the means of conveying such superior benefits to those who do come to the knowledge of it, of making such discoveries in the nature both of God and Man, and of affording motives for men's attaining to such a degree of virtue, and true rational happiness, as all their honesty, without such helps, could never raise in the generality of them.

And whether the sole end of revelation be to bring men to a higher pitch of happiness than they could otherwise attain, or not : \ib. p. 49.] this author never can prove but that it may be one of its great ends; and this end be in fact obtained, to as high a degree as is consistent with his own scheme of perfect liberty; so that, in the last place, allowing God to foresee all the consequences, and events attending such an establishment (ib. p. 62.) yet that the same establishment, so circumstanced, may, notwithstanding any thing this author has made out to the contrary, come from him. And indeed Chubb seems at length to be sensible of that famous objection against the divinity of a revelation from its non-universality being so very much tveakened, that he is grown weary of it, and willing to get rid of it as handsomely as he can, by pretending that he has not even leaned to that side of the question in all his debates upon it, and will take it unkindly to have such a thing so much as insinuated of him. The Author's Farewell, p, 219, note.

quently destroy all virtue, praise, reward ; i. e. all that is good and valuable in religion : — or else it would not be sufficient to answer the several ends proposed; nor could it certainly and effectually secure the lasting interest and salvation of mankind. As an illumination, it must either be distinguishable from the present effects of reason, and the ordinary operations of the divine spirit, or not ; if the former, this must be by striking us more forcibly, and working a more assured, infallible conviction in our minds; but so much as is added to that, above what may arise from the present constitution of things, just so much must be taken from the present choice, and merit of believing ; and the concomitant delight and satisfaction which we feel, and ought to feel, in giving our assent to truth(flQ. Such evidence must either supersede all

(d) See Abp. King, Or. N. 19. p. 108, &c. 4th ed. compared with N. 59. p. 310. Whence it appears, that though in some cases and respects the assent be unavoidable, and we merely passive in the attainment of many useful parts of knowledge ; which must be attended with satisfaction in degree proportioned to the apprehension of that usefulness, and of a kind perhaps very complex, as arising from a variety of causes accidentally associated; yet neither is the kind, nor the degree of this delight so intense, and exquisite, as that which usually accompanies those points, which we work out ourselves; which we properly make our own, by a free, fair investigation. These truths, though of no more importance in themselves, or in their consequences, than any others that are either forcibly obtruded on us, or fortuitously thrown into our way; 3'et are attended with a sort of self-approbation, and complacency, which both accompanies the first discovery, the transporting evgyna ; and will continue after it, and bear reflection; and which makes them in-