Training children to study; practical suggestions

Front matter

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Table Of Contents

PAGE

Preface.v

Introduction.xv

Chapter I Stimulating The Questioning Attitude Of Mind

“Well begun is half done ” is as applicable to study as to any other project, and to begin a task well—vigorously, happily—one must understand why the task is to be under¬ taken.

Hosts of children have crammed facts from books simply to avoid the unpleasant consequences which would follow the failure to satisfy “the powers that be.” Some have striven simply to outshine their fellows. Many have worked for the higher aim of pleasing those dear to them. Still others have been anxious to “prepare for life ” and have plodded faithfully, seeing little rhyme or reason in most of the things demanded of them as they went along, but having faith that somehow what they learned would be useful when they should be “grown up.” A favored few have worked understandingly, with a definite purpose illu¬ minating the way step by step.

In his epoch-making book, How to Study and Teaching How to Study , Dr. McMurry tells us that the demand for study arises in specific needs—“a lively consciousness of the unsatisfactoriness of a situation is the necessary prerequi¬ site to its investigation, it furnishes the motive for it.” 1

When children can see that the knowledge acquired will further projects of keen interest to them, they are willing

1 McMurry, Frank M., How to Study and Teaching How to Study , p. 13. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909.

to undergo uncomplainingly a large amount of drudgery. Consider a group of children constructing an object to illustrate some phase of their history, something which they can use as a plaything, the model of a medieval castle, for instance. They will willingly tear newspaper into bits to be made into pulp, tear and tear and tear, long after they would have tired of aimless tearing. They search through many books for illustrations. These they exam¬ ine with great care that the details of construction may be accurate. They build, tear down, and rebuild when they are not satisfied with the effect. They ask advice as to methods. And when it is done, how they love it!

Then they will set to work to write a play to be acted by puppets in and about the castle. They read many pages concerning the lives of castle-dwellers in order that their play may seem real. They write and rewrite. They will¬ ingly submit to criticism, but do not easily go down under it, as they have had real ideas to express. They are willing to substitute one phrase for another, but the teacher must produce evidence if she attempts to interfere with the idea which the children were endeavoring to make clear. Such a project provides the proper incentive for prolonged study. All the “ steps ” are taken voluntarily.

One can see the same eagerness and thoroughness, the same search for data, the willingness to suspend judgment until other sources of information have been consulted, the same weighing of relative values among a group of children at the sand table constructing a canal lock for the benefit of the whole class. They are eager to see it “work” and to be able to show others.

Unquestionably the most vital, thorough studying done by children is that which is necessary to solve problems which have arisen in their own minds, or which connect with their daily lives, but they must be made acquainted with large bodies of knowledge which do not function immediately in their lives. Frequently it is necessary for them to be satisfied to understand the aim in the mind of the author when he wrote a certain passage and to follow his thought step by step.

Unfortunately, however, not all authors of textbooks are skillful in framing introductory statements which serve to make clear the aim of each chapter. 2 If obliged to use a book defective in this respect, the teacher should be es¬ pecially on the alert to furnish suitable introductions. But when a child is studying alone from such a book, the recog¬ nition of the purpose of a particular selection may come only after he is well into the subject, or even after the whole has been completed. Then he may discover for himself, or if he does not, the teacher should make a special point of showing him, that the knowledge he has acquired will be of use in solving some other problem. Even this

2 Examples of texts satisfactory in this respect are:

1. The History of the American People , by Charles A. Beard and William C. Bagley. The Macmillan Co. The purpose of each chapter is made clear by well-chosen chapter-headings, and by introductory paragraphs, which serve as connecting links between what has gone before and what is to follow.

2. Elementary American History & Government , by James A. Woodburn and Thomas F. Moran. Longmans, Green and Co. The introductory paragraphs are very satisfactory.

3. The Nation's History , by Arthur R. Leonard and Bertha E. Jacobs. Henry Holt and Co. Each chapter is preceded by a topical outline of the subject considered, by thought-provoking questions, and stimulating sug¬ gestions for special investigations.

4. A Brief Topical Survey of United States History , by Oliver P. Corman and Oscar Gerson. D. C. Heath and Co. In this book, also, topical outlines introduce the chapters.

5. Early Settlements in America, by John A. Long. Row, Peterson and Co. The “Questions for Discussion before Reading This Story” serve to focus thought on the especial topic to be considered, and the introductory paragraphs are very skillful prefaces.

tardy recognition of a purpose strengthens his faith in the general reasonableness of the demands made upon him. It will help him to establish the habit of being on the lookout for uses for ideas gained when such uses are not apparent at the start.

The point to be kept in mind is that as rapidly as possible children should be habituated to purposeful investigation rather than to aimless amassing of facts.

The teacher’s method in development lessons has much to do with establishing the right attitude in children when they study alone.

The assignment of the matter for study is of far greater importance than common practice would indicate. The teacher is apt to leave too little time for this part of the work, and so to announce hurriedly a certain number of pages to be studied or problems to be worked.

The importance of formulating the aim of the lesson can scarcely be overestimated. The following is quoted from the geography teacher, “In whatever thing we do in teaching how to study, the definite objective in the child’s mind is the largest factor in success. This may come from the child’s own purpose, or from the teacher’s assignment.”

It may well happen that a whole lesson period may be spent in preparing the children for a period of independent study.

One of the history teachers makes the following statement in regard to specific aim, “Often, before beginning an assign¬ ment, we discuss what we already know about the subject and what we should like to find out. I add questions also and we make a list of definite facts which we must know in order to arrive at some conclusion or judgment.” In other words, she strives to arouse the children’s curiosity about the matter in hand.

Ways in which subjects can be presented so as to start the children to studying with a question or questions in mind are suggested by the following accounts of geography lessons:

The Sixth Grade did some arithmetic with state pop¬ ulations and discovered that the eight Plateau States con¬ tain less than one-third as many people as their own state, New York. Then they compared the area of New York with that of the smallest Plateau State, Utah, and found that New York was little more than half as large. These figures are thought-provoking. Naturally the question arose, “Why are there so few people there?” With this question in mind, they began the study of the Plateau States, considering the influence of their physical charac¬ teristics on the lives of their inhabitants.

In a Seventh Grade a temperature chart of North America was hung on the wall. The pupils were told to study it silently. Then they were asked to state any facts they had discovered, and any questions which they would like answered. Enough questions were propounded to fur¬ nish incentive for several periods of intensive study.

Surely such study is undertaken with more zest than is that which is directed entirely by the teacher. Indeed, by the time the children reach the Seventh Grade they should become conscious of the need of studying with questions in mind. The third geography lesson illustrates how the matter was presented to one class.

Methods of study were discussed in a Seventh Grade geography class, and a comparison made between merely reading pages of assignment and studying to find answers to questions. The class said that the latter method was more interesting. The teacher explained that it was more interesting because they had a purpose in reading:

“Up to this time, your questions have arisen in class discussion or I have given them to you. Now you may try to think out good questions for yourselves. We are about to begin the study of Mexico. Are there any questions about Mexico which you want answered?”

“Suppose you know so much about Mexico that you have no questions to ask?”

“Those who know the most about a country find most problems to consider. It was only because there has been so much in the papers about Mexico of late that I thought you might know enough to ask questions.”

The children were given an opportunity to write their questions. Some showed that they were really interested in learning more about the country; but some obviously were perfunctory, and the teacher told them they sounded “like geography books.”

One boy read his question:

“Is it a farming or an industrial country?”

“John, is there anything you really want to know?”

“Yes, there is one thing, but it is rather foolish. Why do the Mexicans have so many revolutions?”

“That is not foolish. It is Mexico’s biggest problem, one that she is trying to solve.”

It developed that a number of children had wondered about revolutions and the study of the country was begun with the intent to understand Mexico’s difficulties.

It is true that curiosity, or the desire to investigate, is one of the inborn impulses, and we can rely upon it to stim¬ ulate interest in initiating a project , but we cannot be sure that the child will remain in a questioning frame of mind as the work progresses, even though he may continue to de¬ sire an answer to the question.

Throughout the cunning “toddler-years” the child is a questioning animal, a sort of animated interrogation point.

At first the adults who constitute his world find this enter¬ taining and encourage these lisped inquiries. But a time comes when they become tiresome. The novelty has worn off for the adult, but not for the child. However, in time he learns that questions are frequently inexpedient, calling forth weary or sharp replies and he asks fewer and fewer questions, and in far too many cases by the time he enters school questioning is for him a lost art. The tables are turned, he is expected to answer questions asked by the teacher, many of which have little interest for him.

If the child is to become a successful student, the habit of questioning must be reestablished. He must be made curious about the matter under consideration, must make his attack upon it with a question in mind to be answered. He must be so alert that he will know when he does not understand, not slip thoughtlessly over points which he could not explain if called upon to do so. Ineffective indeed is “he who knows not that he knows not.”

Various methods are employed to help the children to discover the value of questioning themselves while studying.

They are encouraged to attempt to answer selected questions and problems from the author’s list which ap¬ pears at the end of each chapter in many textbooks. 3

3 Good lists of questions and problems are found in:

Advanced Geography, McMurry and Parkins. The Macmillan Co.

Essentials of Geography, Books I, II, Brigham and McFarlane. American Book Co.

Human Geography, Books I, II, J. Russell Smith. J. C. Winston Co.

Modern Business Geography, Huntington and Cushing. World Book Co.

Nations as Neighbors, Packard and Sinnott. The Macmillan Co.

New Geography, Frye and Atwood. Ginn and Co.

World Geography, Books I, II, McMurry and Parkins. The Macmillan Co.

America in the Making, Chadsey, Weinberg & Miller. D. C. Heath & Co.

School History of the United States, Albert Bushnell Hart. American Book Co.

A History of the United States, Thwaites & Kendall. Houghton Mifflin Co.

Sometimes all the children are asked to hand in ques¬ tions which they think will make a good test of some sec¬ tion studied by the class. The teacher uses the best of the questions in an oral quiz.

Again, the class is divided into groups, and certain children are selected as “ teachers,” to review the groups on some topic. The “teachers” prepare their questions and submit them to the teacher for criticism before they meet their “classes.”

Children can be helped to develop the technique of questioning. At the completion of a unit of study when an outline, a summary, or a diagram has been made, the teacher naturally asks a few searching questions of the “how” and “why” variety to satisfy herself that the class really understands the subject. If instead of keeping all of this fun to herself, she encourages the pupils to formulate questions, there will be more active thinking in that class all round. According to the children’s individual ability the questions will be penetrating or superficial, but as a result the problem or principal under consideration will be considered in new relations. Moreover it will become a game and the children will beg, “May we ask questions next time?” This ability to ask searching questions after study is quite different from the inquiring mind turned upon a new subject.

A certain Seventh Grade group had considered a num¬ ber of problems in their geography class, some assigned by the teacher, some chosen by individuals. One day the children and teacher together worked out the following general rules to be used in solving geographical prob¬ lems:

1. When trying to solve a geographical problem discuss it with

persons who can help you. Plan the conversation by having exact questions ready on the points needed.

2. Reconsider your problem:

a. Have you solved it?

b. Was your suggested solution correct?

c. Was it workable or do you need to reword it, or hunt a

new problem?

The history teacher in the Sixth and Seventh Grades encourages the children when studying independently to make note of words or statements which they cannot under¬ stand, and to hand in these notes before the recitation dur¬ ing which the assignment is to be discussed. If several children ask about the same point, it probably should be discussed in class.

A Seventh Grade study assignment in history included “The First Amendments to the Constitution” and “Ham¬ ilton’s Plan for Establishing the Credit of the United States.” 4

A number of papers contained questions similar to the following:

“What are sovereign states?”

“Exactly what is ‘funding’ the debt? I have looked up the word, but still I do not understand.”

“What does this mean: ‘There were no express limitations in favor of personal freedom and the rights of states’?”

“I do not understand what is meant by: ‘The right to assemble and petition the government.’”

The lesson was a very difficult one. The greatest gain that the children could get from studying it independently was the realization that they did not understand it. The whole matter was discussed in class.

4 Beard and Bagley, History of the American People , pp. 189-195. The Macmillan Co., 1925.

Only one child asked the meaning of “Indictment by grand jury and trial by jury in all cases of persons charged by federal officers with serious crimes.” “Indictment,” “jury,” “trial” “federal,” “crimes”—all these words sounded familiar and the children did not stop to see whether they could explain the idea that they together were intended to convey. When the question was put to the class, one child after another sat down looking very sheepish after having arisen, attempted an explanation, and failed. The teacher didn’t need to say anything. A child said it for her, “Seems most of us didn’t know we didn’t know.”

Sometimes when a class has grown careless in the matter of handing in discriminating questions, the teacher “springs on them” an unpleasant surprise. She asks in a test some question which she feels sure a considerable number of children should have asked her and then gives credit, not only to children who can answer it, but to children who, recognizing that they did not understand, had made the request for an explanation. One illustration will suffice.

A Seventh Grade had studied the political campaign of I860. 5 The next day they were given a written test, covering a few points in the lesson. In order to give the proper setting to the four questions she intended to ask, the teacher reviewed briefly the introductory paragraphs of the home assignment as follows:

The North was stirred by the repeal of the Missouri Compromise and by the Dred Scott Decision, but it was by no means sure that a majority would vote to abolish slavery in the territories or even to disturb slavery at all. So the Republican party needed other planks for its platform in the 1860 presidential election.

Then these questions were written on the board:

1. What were the chief planks finally decided upon?

2. What is meant by the sentence, following the statement of the

planks or issues—“All these issues were really dovetailed to¬ gether’?

3. Who held the balance of power in this election?

4. Which planks or plank secured their vote?

“Dovetailed together,” those were the words which the teacher felt might easily puzzle Seventh Graders. She explained that there might be some question about which some one of them had failed to inquire when he should have done so. In that case he was just to state the fact. On the other hand if anyone found a question which he could not answer, but about which he had handed in a question, he was to note the fact and he would be given credit for the question.

Utter astonishment on the faces of the children—

“But, Miss-”

“Oh, it’s perfectly fair. You’ve been told always that it is more important to ‘know when you don’t know,’ and to know how to find out about things, than it is simply to memorize facts. It will be a good thing for you to find out whether or not you have been growing careless in this respect.”

By this time a number of children appreciated that the af¬ fair was half a joke, and grins began to take the place of puzzlement and disapproval. The children recognized that they had been fairly caught, and rather enjoyed the play element, but it was evident that some then and there resolved not to be caught in such a trap again.

Now as to the answers to the second question.

Five showed real comprehension.

Five showed some glimmering of the meaning.

Five children stated that they had failed to ask:

“I did not know and forgot to ask you a question about it.”

“I did not understand and did not ask a question.”

“I did not notice it.”

“I do not believe I studied this because I do not remember anything about planks or issues.”

“I do not know, I did not ask a question. I do not believe that sentence was in my book.” (!)

Three children had known that they did not know, and had remembered to ask for an explanation. One of the three had not only handed in the question, but had dis¬ cussed the matter with the teacher before school. This child’s answer is counted among the five showing real comprehension. It is apparent that all but four children needed help, and that only three took steps to get it. Slowly, very slowly, do children acquire the habits of thoughtful students.

Of course such lessons should occur very seldom, and the children should not feel themselves being penalized. The fun must be very near the surface, or “it won’t work.” It is doubtful whether a Sixth Grade group could see the humor.

The children were given an opportunity to study this lesson again and to hand in questions. In this instance the teacher wrote the answers on the children’s question-papers, or indicated where the answers were to be found. A few specimens are given, the teacher’s comments ap¬ pearing in parentheses:

Children’s Papers with Teacher’s Comments

First Paper

I. P. 386, middle of page

Why should the farmers of the middle west object to a tariff reduction? (p. 255.)

II. P. 388, middle of page

Why did the settlers of southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois op¬ pose abolition if they did not like slavery? (Many of those settlers were from the S. and did like slavery.)

HI. P. 390, top of page

Under what party name did the advocates of John Bell nom¬ inate him (Constitutional Union Party. Their platform stated that they stood for “The Constitution, the Union and the En¬ forcement of the laws.” Horace Greeley said this meant any¬ thing and nothing.” Thousands voted with this party simply because they could not decide which side they were on. Consult Hart and McMaster.) 6

Second Paper

1. I never knew that Lincoln was a candidate for Senator of Illinois.

I thought that the Lincoln-Douglas debates were about slavery alone. Why is it that one rarely hears of the debates as senatorial debates also? (Lincoln did not become senator, but the debates made clear his ideas in regard to slavery. The debates helped to secure his election to the presidency. An interesting account of these debates is given in A New Nation.) 7

2. Page 383, bottom of page, “Although Douglas won the election, he really lost the debates.” Does this mean that most of the people thought with him? (At the time a majority of the voters in Illinois thought with Douglas.)

Was “The Great Tribute” about these debates? (I think you mean “The Perfect Tribute” by Mary Andrews. No, that is about the Gettysburg Address. We will come to it later.)

3. What was the idea about the tariff? Was it just to make trouble or did the people really think it bad? (A great many people thought it bad. A great many do now.)

4. Which was the Republican’s first national convention? (1856. See p. 381.)

5. I have looked up the three words: “recruits,” “dovetailed,” and

6 Hart, Albert Bushnell, School History of the United States. American Book Co.; McMaster, John Bach, School History of the United States. American Book Co., New York.

7 Barstow, Charles L., A New Nation. Century Co., 1925.

“predominance,” on page 388 near top, and still do not under¬ stand them. (I will explain.)

6. Who was the chairman of The Democratic Convention? (I do not know. Not important.)

Ques. page 382.

Ans.

Ques. page 383.

Ans.

Ques. page 383.

Ans.

Ques.

Ans.

Ques.

PAGE 388.

Ans.

Third Paper

How did a poor slave like Scott get his case taken to the Supreme Court? Didn’t somebody do it for him?

(I don’t know. I will try to find out more about it.)

Lincoln-Douglas debates.

Did Lincoln have a political career before this?

(Mem. Ill. State legislature, Rep. of Ill. in U. S. House of Rep. 1847-1849.)

How did the debates come about?

(Campaign speeches. Lincoln replied to a speech in which Douglas stated that the Compromise of 1850 had repealed the Missouri Compromise. Read about the debates in A New Nation .) 8

Is there a limit to the number of votes a president must have to be elected?

(He must have a majority of the electoral votes.)

What does “dovetailed” mean?

(I will explain.)

It will be noted that this child left spaces for answers. This arrangement was especially commended by the teacher, and later was adopted by several members of the class.

Sometimes an entire class period is devoted to private conferences. One after another the children are called up to discuss their questions with the teacher. Supplementary work is provided for those at their seats. In order that the 8 Ibid.

work may progress rapidly the papers have been red-inked. A few illustrations are given, the words in parentheses being the ones which appeared in red ink on the original papers . 9

One Child’s Questions

1. Why was it that the Free Soil Party declined?

2. Did it do any good?

3. Did it ever get another candidate elected? (Did it ever elect a

candidate? See Table of Pres.)

4. I would like to know more about the Underground Railroad.

(Building the Nation , Gordy, Hart, Muzzey.) 10

5. Was Calhoun from North or South? (Index.)

6. Did the agitators do as much good as this book lets them do?

(Open question.)

7. I did not get the idea of the gag rule. (Confer.)

The Conference as Reported by the Teacher

John was told that so many had inquired about the Free Soil Party that it would be further discussed in class, so questions one and two were passed by.

Question 3. He turned to the Table of Presidents in the appendix. In the column headed “Party” he looked in vain for any Free Soiler. I asked him what made him think there was a Free Soil president. “The book said MaEjtin Van Buren was one.”

“Show me where it says that,” I replied.

He turned to page 380 where it is stated that Martin Van Buren was nominated by the Free Soil Party in 1848, “and obtained nearly 300,000 votes.” He then realized that the book did not say that he was elected, that he had merely jumped to that conclusion.

Question 4. I suggested that when we were through conferring he might get from the reference shelf a copy of Building the Nation or

9 The assignment concerned “The Abolition Movement,” pages 372-380 in Beard & Bagley’s History.

10 Coffin, Charles C., Building the Nation. Harper and Brothers.

Gordy, Wilbur F., A History of the United States. Charles Scribner’s Sons. Hart, A. B., A School History of the United States. American Book Co. Muzzey, D. S., An American History. Ginn and Co.

of one of the histories referred to and read about the Underground Railroad.

Question 5. Together we turned to the Index and under Calhoun found five page references. We looked them up and found the fol¬ lowing statements:

p. 259, “Southern statesmen like Calhoun. . . .”

262, “In this contest John C. Calhoun of South Caro¬ lina. . . ”

277, “On the other hand Calhoun, the statesman of South

Carolina. . . .”

278, “It was not until 1844 that he (President Tyler) chose

Calhoun as Secretary of State and authorized him to make a treaty annexing Texas. (John knew what sec¬ tion of the country wanted Texas annexed.)

376, “For instance, Calhoun, Senator from South Caro¬ lina. . . .”

A series of pictures which recorded John’s changes in expression as we read one reference after another would be interesting! He was also reminded that an encyclopedia might have been useful!

Question 6. We discussed this question quite thoroughly. I told John how some people thought that agitators do more harm than good, because they irritate people, that others feel that each evil should be attacked vigorously.

Question 7. I paraphrased the paragraph in which the gag rule was explained.

When children are first asked to hand in their questions most of them refer to the meaning of the text. Often children simply list a number of words which they cannot define. More and more they are thrown back on the dic¬ tionary in such cases. “Did you look it up? ” A time comes when they do not ask the meaning of a word without pref¬ acing the request with the statement, “I looked up-

but still cannot understand what is meant.”

Gradually also such statements as “I do not understand the first paragraph on page—” grow less in number as the children learn to read more carefully and voluntarily to use the dictionary, atlas, index, etc. Increasingly the papers contain requests for additional information, or for an ex¬ pression of the teacher’s opinion on some subject. In the case of an occasional child, the papers come to be largely an interchange of ideas between pupil and teacher. In one Seventh Grade, one pupil and her teacher often corre¬ sponded in this wise: “I think that the first four lines in our lesson were altogether prejudiced. Are they?” (Ans. “I agree with you.”) Be it noted, however, that they did not always agree. The child who had independence enough to criticize the book, would not accept all the opinions of the teacher, and the teacher rejoiced, the object of teaching being to get pupils to think, not to get them to absorb the teacher’s opinions.

The geography teacher reports that she handles most of the questions in class, the treatment varying according to the nature of the question. Sometimes a little help from the teacher will enable the child to answer his own question. Sometimes other pupils can give him the help he needs, or answer the question outright. Again, it may be assigned for further investigation by the child, the matter to be re¬ ported upon later. Really difficult questions must usually be answered by the teacher. They often motivate the best kind of development lessons. “Some questions are so pro¬ found that I say quite frankly that I do not know, as it is a matter for a geologist, a chemist, a bacteriologist, or some other specialist. Some questions I volunteer to investi¬ gate; some are still unsolved by science. But whatever the treatment, if we can lead pupils to word their difficulties, we have gone far in teaching them howTo study.”