The occasional address, its composition and literature

Front matter

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Preface

THE design of the following chapters is to present the main requirements for the production of the Occasional Address. A consideration of its principal elements of structure is followed by an examination of the forms which it has assumed, thus making possible both the synthetic and the analytic treatment of the subject. In preparing the work I have borne in mind chiefly the needs of students who may be interested in the basis and structure of oratorical composition. Still, I believe that serviceable suggestions may be found by professional speakers for the extra-professional tasks which they are often asked to perform. Some assistance also may be afforded to a considerable number in every vocation, who are from time to time called upon to give effective presentation of their thoughts in public speech.

vi Preface

Occasions for addresses of various kinds are constantly recurring under the present conditions of American life. The ordinary responsibilities of citizenship impose the frequent necessity of recalling and interpreting lessons taught by memorable events and illustrious lives, and of impressing upon the public serious views and recommendations concerning matters of pending policy. Opportunities are also frequently offered to contribute to the entertainment of the hour by a few gracefully spoken words.

Such occasions in the past have evoked a literature corresponding to their diversified character. Reference has been made to the greater part of this literature in the hope that it will be found full of suggestion to those who may be called upon to meet the demands of similar occasions in the future.

L. S. , Brown University, February , J8g"j %

Chapter I. — Introductory

Definition — A feature of our national life — Its value — Comparison with other oratorical forms — The address of educated leaders — Necessity of cultivating this form — Qualities of demonstrative oratory — Its abundant literature — Divisions and qualities of occasional discourse — Treatment of subject outlined . 3-13

Chapter II. — The Object of Discourse

Speaker's object always to be clear to himself — Purpose in different kinds of discourse — Examples — Purpose measured by ability — Estimate of aptitude — Dangers of an overestimate — Advocate to be equal to his cause ........ 14-26

Chapter III. — The Subject

Choice of subject — Statement of subject — Derivation of the theme — Advantage of division — Comprehensive brevity in statement — Expression of leading thought — Reservation of theme 27-43 viii Contents

Chapter IV. — The Plan

Value of a plan — Direction of thought — Ordering of material — Principles of arrangement — Three divisions of discourse — Plan prevents digression — Secures proportion — Afterthoughts — The skilled writer's Plan 44-57

Chapter V. — The Introduction

Provisional introduction — Elements of the final introduction — Conciliation — Antagonism of prejudice and ignorance — Examples of conciliatory introductions — Indifference and its removal — Establishing importance of subject — The occasion often lends importance — Justification of the speech in introduction — Full statement of subject — Examples . 58-76

Chapter VI. — The Discussion

Discussion in different kinds of discourse — Ancient classification of oratory — Modern classification — Recent classification — Scope of demonstrative oratory — Its theme immaterial and personal — Ethical and political subjects — Range of its topics — Its methods expository — The orator a discoverer — Invention — Among the ancients : in composition — New combination demanded — Exposition by representation — Examples of character-portrayal — Words as media 77-100

Chapter VII. — The Conclusion of an Address

Importance of the peroration — An epitome of the discourse — Recapitulation — Cumulative massing — Brevity, and stopping at the end . . . 101-108

Contents ix

Chapter I. — Cardinal Processes

Descriptive, narrative, and expository treatment — Appropriate argumentative forms — Examples and historical parallels — Limitations in their use — The simpler logical forms — Conviction in order to persuasion — Motives, low and high — The collective conscience — Persuasion ending in action . 109-120

Chapter II. — Perspicuity

Arrangement of thought and its expression — Preliminary and elementary training — Correct pronunciation — Necessity of clearness — Perspicuity and precision — Clear thought helps clear expression — Concentration of mind — Perspicuous diction — Anglo-Saxon and Romance derivatives — Popular criticism — Breadth and strength of phrase — Figures for clearness — The comparative faculty — The illustrating term — Cultivation of comparison — Dangers besetting it — Illustration of the first use of figures . . . 121-141

Chapter III. — Energy

Force added to perspicuity — Pervasive energy — Emphasis — Personal force — Strong words — Plain speech — Romance words — Specific terms — Figures for emphasis — Climax — Reserves of power — Moderation in statement ...... 142-158

Chapter IV. — Elegance

Relative value of elegance — Elevation of tone in discourse — Appropriate diction — Euphonious arrangement of words — Imagery for beauty — Fitness in thought 159-105 x Contents

Chapter V. — Adaptation

Adaptation a far-reaching principle — Congruity of style and subject — Incongruities apparent to audience — Unsuitableness of subject — Correspondence of diction and theme — Simplicity of style — The dramatic element — Naturalness and imitation — Personality the condition of success — Natural oratory — Liberal studies . 166-184

Chapter VI. — Personal and Ethical Qualities

Nature and art in composition — General qualities — Variety and breadth of treatment — Breadth does not imply inaccuracy — Distinctness of division — The elucidating power — The finding power — Courage of convictions — Personal power — The ethical quality 1 85-204

Chapter I. — The Eulogy

A primeval form of address — Hebrew, Greek, and Roman panegyric — Panegyrists of imperialism — In feudal ages — In the reign of Louis XIV. — The eloges of the Academy —Character the subject of eulogy — British eulogy — Eulogy in America — Clerical memorials — Eulogies upon magistrates — The eulogy as literature — Everett's eulogy upon Washington — Analysis of the oration — Other eulogists — Permanence of the eulogy — Principles of its construction — Treatment of defects in character . . . 205-244

Contents xi

Chapter II. — The Commemorative Address. PAG&S

Events and persons commemorated — Beginnings of commemorative literature — Historical survey of this literature — Commemoration of events — Interpretation and reminiscence — Early examples. Hebrew — In other nations — Greek — Roman — Mediaeval — In France and England — In America — Webster's commemorative orations — Everett's frequent addresses 245-273

Chapter III. — The Expository Address

Exposition and interpretation — Edward Everett — Rufus Choate — The popular lecture and lecturers — Charles Sumner — Robert C. Winthrop — Wendell Phillips — Ralph Waldo Emerson — George William Curtis 274-284

Chapter IV. — The Commencement Oration

Its literature abundant — Its probable permanence — Its representative character — Subject should be interesting — Treatment of theme — Making points — Condensation and compression — Technical terms to be avoided — Epigramatic style unsatisfactory — Advantages of the thesis — Delivery — Methods of composition outlined 285-301

Chapter V. — The Political Speech

Students in a political campaign — Political knowledge of the people — Value of contact with popular criticism — Fairness in discussion — Making most of diversions — Support of speaker's own cause — Clearness and xii Contents strength of diction — Spontaneity — Meeting emergencies — The Political Convention — The literature of campaign oratory — Speeches for the constituency — The campaign of 1896 .... 301-318

Chapter VI. — After-Dinner Remarks

Antiquity of the custom — The occasion furnishing material — Revision and forethought — Preparation and gleaning — Weighty subjects in lighter vein — Entertainment essential — Brevity desirable — Requisites of preparation — The literature of after-dinner speech — Value of such opportunities . 319-332

" Do you think that you could speak yourself if there were a necessity, and if the council were to choose you ?

"And what would you be able to say if you had to speak ? " The Menexenus of Plato.

(Jowett's version.)

I. Introductory

THE comprehensive term, Occasional Address, is here employed to designate those forms of public speech which are called forth

by occurrences of unusual import- Definition, ance. It is a custom in our own

time and nation, as it has been in other nations and times, to interpret in this manner the meaning of events, to recall the teaching of turning-points in history, to commemorate worthy lives, and to enforce the lessons exemplified in noble characters. As a custom, it has its reason and justification, partly in the reminiscent disposition common to all people, and also in the willingness and desire to be guided in the larger affairs of personal and national life by the wisdom which is distilled from the experience of the past. Thus the occasional ad- 3 dress has grown to be a feature in the life and literature of all cultivated nations.

In our own nation in particular it has become prominent, owing to a strong inclination to celebrate anniversary days and, as

A feature of

our national a republic, to keep in constant remembrance the lessons of political wisdom left by its founders. The better sentiment of the people is, that the continuance of our institutions depends upon an educated public understanding and conscience. Among the instrumentalities for accomplishing this, — such as the establishing of societies of a commemorative character, and the increasing study of our history, and the preservation of memorials, — must be reckoned the occasional address in one or more of its forms. Indeed, it usually accompanies the above-mentioned retrospective acts ; for the foundation or mere continuance of any organization or ceremony avails little unless occasionally explained and illustrated. The spoken word of comment, instruction, and appeal must pass between the event and the common intelligence or its best significance and its power are ultimately lost.

Interpreted rightly, the event, life, or character obtains a widely radiating influence, a renown commensurate with its exposition, and a usefulness as varied as the diversified views of different interpreters.

The value of such occasional address may best be estimated by recalling some example of it. One need go no farther back

Its value.

than the centennial of Washington's inauguration as President of the United States. The years since have been prolific in such discourse. Every intelligent citizen will remember what some instance of it has been to him when he has had set before him higher ideals of citizenship or nobler standards of character than those presented in the ordinary round of daily living. Perchance, the historic spirit may have been stirred and the historic imagination fired — no inferior elements in the education of a man who has other interests than those of finance. Possibly the theme may have been merely literary, scientific, or social in character ; the departments of taste, knowledge, and good fellowship occupy too large a portion of what is called life to permit the neglect of any method of cultivation so effective as the popular lecture in its earlier or later forms.

It may be said that the teachings above mentioned can be had from other sources; those of compared justice, for example, in the courts, with other of th hi her litics in legislative

oratorical ox o

forms. assemblies, and of morals and religion

in the pulpit. But these specialties are each subject to qualifications as methods of instruction, and their limitations are so obvious as to be an answer to the suggestion to substitute them for the public address as popular educators. Such instruction is in definite lines, often technical, or restricted to narrow bounds by necessity, taste, habit, and class association. Topics that can be discussed before a representative throng of the people are out of place in any and all the departments of instruction just enumerated. Both the audience and the address are more general in character. The one will have a wider scope, and the other will be composed of more heterogeneous materials. On the other hand, the hearers expect to be instructed in matters of superior interest and importance, or to have inspiring examples set before them, their best motives appealed to, and to hear all in a dignified and elevated tone of discourse.

For this they naturally look to their leaders — men of intelligence, wisdom, and effective speech. As a rule, these are men of

1 The address

education and cultivation. Usually of educated

leaders.

they belong to the constantly widening circle of the learned professions. As these are becoming more learned and more technical with the growth of specialism, the chances for the best occasional oratory are growing less. The qualities which make men eminent at the bar, in the legislature, in the pulpit, the editorial office, the academic lecture-room, must converge at one point where each man shall be a recognized authority according to his eminence. He may be an occasional orator, but the occasions will be as rare as the demand is infrequent for what he can say best.

Accordingly there is the greater demand upon professional and educated men to

Necessity of

cultivate those faculties which will cultivating

, r , • i this form.

be of service in extra-professional

address, and to make excursions into those fields of knowledge which lie outside their narrowing vocations. For in this territory the great multitude of men live and move, with their interests and hopes and fears, their ignorance and their shrewd sense, their fickleness and their power, their prejudices and their openness to conviction and persuasion. To nothing are they more obedient than to the skilled speaker who knows whereof he speaks. As intelligence increases and becomes the condition of privilege and power, and even of liberty, the people will come in greater numbers to hear what the man will say whose knowledge and virtue give him the right to address them. They will listen and pay him their best tribute in adopting his opinions, and possibly in repeating them as their own on the first opportunity. They may not understand all that he says ; they may recall still less after his speech is ended, but they have received information, impressions, and impulses through the words spoken, and, what is often of equal value, through the speaker's personality and character, evident to the discerning spirit in every audience.

Nothing is better adapted to give a speaker the power needed to inform and direct multitudes, than a study of the occasional

Qualities of

address both in its structure and as demonstrat-

ive oratory.

a literary form. In the first respect, it has much in common with other kinds of oratory, as the judicial, the deliberative, and the homiletic. Still, this fourth form, the demonstrative, emphasizes certain methods which give it distinction from the others. Above all it is what the Greeks called " epidictic " — showing forth — and the Romans, " demonstrative," not in the sense of demonstration by logical processes so much as by expository setting forth and pointing out, as of a thing in itself plain when attention has been directed to it. If this demonstration or exhibition and display of truth is made for the purpose of securing a definite act on the part of those addressed, the discourse becomes " determinative," as directing to a certain end. The same term applies to that address which is intended to result in a change of opinion, belief, or action. In such discourse there is need of clear perception and the power to make evident to others what is io The Occasional Address

seen by the speaker. In technical phrase, the speaker should have the qualities of perspicacity and perspicuity ; be keen of sight, and plain in speech. So only will he be both a discoverer and a revealer. He will also need in their place and time other subordinate qualities which are commonly set down in works upon composition, and cannot safely be omitted in any treatment of methods in the expression of thought. But the widest exposition of effective processes and qualities in occasional oratory is found in its literature, which is abundant and diversified.

Every nation and century have contributed to it according to their character, taste, and its abundant ability. The Greek gave it a nobly literature. reminiscent and commemorative tone, the Roman a panegyric accent ; the mediaeval ecclesiastic emphasized the spirit of reverence ; the French orators breathed into it a loyalty to imperialism mingled with an unswerving devotion to the King of kings ; the English made it a moderate and just estimate of events and men ; while Americans, the heirs of all, have given it a cosmopolitan character and a free treatment. The entire body of this literature in all nations and times is the best of instructors to any who may have to speak in a similar strain. Its volume is great, but the choicest of it is accessible and sufficient. Full of instruction, suggestion, and inspiration in its matter, and of dignity and beauty in its form, replete with graces of style, the strength of clear presentation, and the force of sympathetic appeal, it is a type of the most effective communication, from one man to many, of his perceptions and opinions, his sentiments and emotions. What the masters of such speech accomplished in the determinative mode of it, belongs to the history of eloquence and of civilization itself. Therefore any study of demonstrative oratory should, as far as practicable, include reference, at least, to its literature. Extended quotation in any work of moderate compass is impossible, as it is also misleading if fragmentary. Only as illustrating separate divisions of discourse can the discourse itself be divided without marring the effect of its unity and completeness. Accordingly, while sources of instruction and suggestion have been indicated here, so much only of extract and analysis has been made as will lead to the synthesis of actual composition. The two processes together constitute the method which contributes to best success in this important phase of public speech.

Before undertaking an occasional address there will, of course, arise questions as to the Divisions and orator's reason for speaking at all, oc«^ona i f the ob J ect and purpose he has in discourse. m i n d, the end he desires to accomplish, and his own warrant for the attempt. These interrogatories being answered, matters of construction will demand attention, in the main divisions of introduction, discussion, and conclusion. Qualities which make for effectiveness in presenting thoughts and appealing to motives cannot be overlooked, nor, above all, certain impalpable elements which are gifts rather than acquirements, the greatest of which is the moral strength and earnestness that underlie the most effective speech. In demonstrative discourse, more than in any other form, there is a demand for all these and every other resource of oratory, since those who are addressed belong to every grade in the social scale, and hold opinions, sentiments, and beliefs of endless diversity.

Consequently the study of the occasional address as composition is widely inclusive, as its literature is almost limitless. The

Treatment of

following chapters attempt to apply subject outfamiliar principles and methods to this single branch of discourse, and also to point out its achievements in several directions, ranging from sober commemoration to the lighter speech of social festivities. If, in consequence of this attempt, it shall be easier to keep the occasional address up to the high levels which it has reached in our own and in former times, the purpose of this discussion of its composition and its literature will be accomplished.

II. The Object Of Discourse

IT has been observed that the literature of the Anglo-Saxon race has for one of its fundamental characteristics a definite purpose, which in turn becomes the reason of its existobject in ence and the warrant of its perpespea mg. tuity. In some forms of composition this element of purpose will necessarily not be avowed, although even in a novel it is not needful to assent to a recent critical dictum that " a story with a purpose is a violation of the author's unwritten contract with his readers." The announcement of the writer's purpose is, however, by no means essential. On the contrary, such proclamation of the speaker's design may be the most direct and speedy means of frustrating it, as the premature publication of a warrant for arrest puts the offender 14 on guard and hastens his escape. So far as the audience is concerned, the purpose of a discourse is sometimes subject to the same law that prevails in the novel or the play, where it would be fatal to the reader's prolonged attention to state, as in the ancient prologue, the purpose of the story or the drama. But in the degree that the speaker is at variance with his hearers, it will be politic to keep his intention to himself. The last thing they will wish to hear is, that he purposes to change their way of thinking, and bring them around to a contrary opinion. Consistency is a jewel which every man thinks he possesses, and with which he never parts. Accordingly the skilled orator does not publicly propose to change the opinions of his audience. In proportion as he really desires to accomplish this he will avoid proclaiming his design.

In just this proportion also, on the other hand, will his object in speaking be clear and definite to himself. This purpose must be the first and clearest thought that he Purpose clear has. It is not to be denied that to himseIf ' there are felicitous speakers to whom sympathetic assemblies listen with pleasure when there is nothing of great consequence to hear; but the manner in which the little or nothing is said gives pleasure for the time, and in this way becomes the purpose of the hour to the spokesman. At such a time a serious purpose might be as much out of place as a sermon at a marriage feast. Yet the purpose of the speech in lighter vein may be just as definite and just as apposite as when graver issues are discussed with the definite aim to win opposing minds to the speaker's own. When, however, serious matters press upon the orator, he will realize the strong necessity of having the purpose of his discourse clearly and definitely in mind. For the very nature of persuasive speech implies an object and end for which it is uttered. Not mainly to instruct, like the essay or the lecture, nor chiefly to please, like the story, the poem, and the play ; but being designed to move the sentiments toward a higher plane, or the wills of the hearers to determinate action, the end to which such speech is directed must be the plainest, clearest, and earliest thought in the writer's mind. Otherwise his effort will be divided, vague, and uncertain, with corresponding results. In nothing is singleness of aim more essential to success, or division and indistinctness more fatal. Incidentally it may be remarked here that the objects of speaking may in general be reduced to four : to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, and to influence the will. Eloquence itself, in the large significance of the word, denotes " that art or talent by which discourse is adapted to its purpose."

The first inquiry, therefore, which the orator makes will be, What is the object of my speech ? What, indeed, is the reason of my

Purpose in

speaking at all ? This question is different kinds

of discourse.

pertinent whatever may be the nature of the discourse. If forensic, the character of the case will furnish the answer, whether prosecution or defence. If deliberative, the measure to be advocated. If political, the end to be gained. If commemorative, the lesson to be inculcated. If inaugural, inceptive, or anticipatory, the promise, the hope, and the expectation will furnish the speaker with a purpose to lead his hearers up to the efforts they are to make to meet incident obligations. A lecture has its instruction to be conveyed, and a sermon both instruction and persuasion.

The literature of eloquence affords many examples of such inquiry, which must have been made by orators before their speeches

Examples.

were begun, or even planned. io cite an instance which will be recalled by every reader of such literature: In the Bunker Hill oration by Daniel Webster, at the laying of the corner-stone of the monument, his preconceived purpose was plainly to show the results of the Revolutionary war upon civilization, and to urge the people to perpetuate the existing condition of prosperity. Charles Summer's object in his oration on " Fame and Glory," delivered before the literary societies of Amherst College in August, 1847, was to establish a higher ideal in the moral life, to emphasize the brotherhood of mankind, and to bring human lives into harmony with the divine will. The object of Wendell Phillips's " Phi Beta Kappa" oration at Harvard, June 30, 1881, was to show that man with a college education may educate and elevate the masses. The purpose of William H.

Seward's speech on "The Irrepressible Conflict/' 1858, was to encourage the people of the United States in reclaiming ground which had been surrendered to the interests of the South. Robert Toombs, of Georgia, had in mind a purpose to impress the North with the consequences of inconsistency to its former doctrine of loyalty to the decisions of the Supreme Court, and to show that secession and an appeal to arms would follow. Jefferson Davis in his inaugural address tried to brace the energies of the Confederacy to the responsibility of conducting its own affairs, and to securing the perpetuity of the separated government. Carl Schurz in 1864 had, as the end and aim of his Milwaukee speech, the fortifying of the war sentiment and further sacrifice for the cause of Union and Liberty. To emphasize the doctrine that Congress should guarantee republican government in the Southern States after the war, was the purpose of Henry Winter Davis's speech in March, 1864, and Geo. H. Pendleton's reply was for the purpose of recalling the old doctrine of the rights of States. In all these instances, if one were asked what was the chief thought of each speaker at the outset, the answer would be, "His purpose." An end is to be secured. A certain man desires to accomplish it, and determines to make the attempt. This thought is prior to any definite vision of the precise method by which the object is to be gained. The particular line of address is a later decision. To make a speech will certainly not be the first impulse with a man in earnest ; at least not for the sake of speaking. Only as a means to an end will he make a public address ; unless he delights in the inebriety which it sometimes produces — especially in extemporaneous effusions — but with corresponding reactions and disgust on the following day, or even earlier. Accordingly, every speaker who is likely to be heard with interest will have a purpose, or find one, as the justification of his appearing before an audience with a demand upon its time and attention. The age is too busy, and the aggregated hours surrendered by listeners are too many to admit of waste on purposeless talk by which time is lost and energies dissipated.

In considering the object and purpose of speaking, the same exercise of judgment is required as in all the serious affairs of

Purpose

life. Nowhere is the need greater measured by than here, that the speaker rightly estimate his ability to accomplish his ends and satisfy a laudable ambition. In general it may be affirmed, that an overmastering purpose will give earnestness and sincerity to utterance, but unfortunately these qualities, essential as they are to eloquence, are by no means the whole of it. Many a person who has been stirred by a clear vision of the worthiness of some form of beneficence, or by an oppressive sense of a longstanding wrong, has also felt his powerlessness to " cry aloud and spare not/' The incubus of compelled silence is upon him. He cannot find his voice. Not all, however, are thus choked by an overwhelming sense of inequality to the occasion and the demand. As a consequence, many causes have been espoused, and many enterprises undertaken, by zealous but miscalculating champions. This is exemplified in every reform movement. There were many, for instance, who were eager to abolish the slave-trade in England and in this country, but only two or three who were able to be leaders in such a stupendous undertaking. Opportunities for a crusade against permitted wrongs are never wanting, nor is the perception of them long absent from keen sensibilities in every community and age ; but the able are always fewer than the devoted and the valiant.

It therefore becomes a part of the difficulty and the labor which beset a speaker at the Estimate of outset to estimate with exactness his aptitude. aptitude to achieve a desired end. He will ask : " Am I equal to the enterprise I have in mind ? Can I reasonably expect to accomplish it? Is my desire a warrant of my success? Can I command the forces requisite to stem opposition, and turn it to my advantage ? " Such questions are not so rare or idle as they may seem. Out in the strife of opinions, parties, and factions they are constantly presenting themselves to the men who are guiding public sentiment and enlisting forces. Their success depends largely upon the discreet answers they make to the above self-questionings. Therefore, one lesson to be learned is how to make a wise estimate of what can safely be undertaken as the object of persuasive speech, in order that the purpose to be accomplished be not beyond the ability of him who ardently desires its attainment.

How is this to be ascertained ? Sometimes by nothing less than the actual trial, in which the speaker may surprise himself and develop unexpected resources. Usually, however, he will need some previous encouragement or dissuasion. Then reference to past achievements may be helpful. Has a similar task been performed with satisfaction ? Would a friend of similar capacity be likely to undertake it or carry it to a successful conclusion ? Has it been taken up before, and by what sort of advocates, and with what result ? Such inquiries will clarify doubts and settle uncertainties. At least they will be likely to indicate the safe side and may prevent disaster. Or, possibly, they may lead to a reasonable assurance of success. For example, when Daniel Webster undertook to reply to Hayne's attack upon him and upon New England, it is certain that he had few apprehensions as to his competency to meet the charges of his opponent.