Elementary woodwork

Front matter

Copyright N?_1__T.

COPYRIGHT UEPOSm

WORKS OF

Part i. Elementary Exercises

I. To True the First Surface of a Piece

of Wood -

II. To Plane an Edgeat Right Angles to

a Surface -

III. Use of the Gauge -

IV. Finishing the Third Side

V. Finishing the Fourth Side

VI. Laying off Spaces and Lining

VII. Bench-Hook - - - -

VIII. Shelf Border -----

IX. Boring - - - -

X. Sawing .

XI. Chiseling -----

XII. Making the Corner Shelf

XIII. Chiseling Ends -

XIV. Sandpapering -

XV. Shellacing -----

XVI. Halved Corner.

XVII. Finishing the Halved Corner XVIII. Making a Halved Tee -

XIX. Halved Cross.

XX. Halved Dovetail -

XXI. Slip Mortise and Tenon -

XXII. Through Mortise and Tenon

XXIII. Frame Mortise and Tenon

XXIV. Blind Mortice and Tenon -

XXV. Single Dovetail - - - -

XXVI. Common Dovetail -

XXVII. Half Blind Dovetail -

Part II. Supplementary Lessons Lesson XXVIII Getting Out Stock - - - - 99

Lesson XXIX. Bench-Hook ----- 102

Lesson XXX. Rabbeted Corner - 110

Lesson XXXI. Gained and Rabbeted Corner - - 112

Lesson XXXII. Bridle Joint - - - - 114

Lesson XXXIII. Haunched Mortise and Tenon - 115

Lesson XXXIV Dowell Joint - - - - -117

Lesson XXXV. Special Dovetail Joint - - 120

Lesson XXXVI. Miter Joint.121

Lesson XXXVII. Slip Mortise and Miter - - 125

Lesson XXXVIII. Glue Joint.126

Lesson XXXIX. Making an Octagon - - - 130

Lesson XL Making a Cylinder - 133

Lesson XL I. Making a Pointer - - - 134

Lesson XLII. Making a Hexagon - - - 134

Part III. Description and Use of Tools and Materials

Introduction, Alcohol (See Shellac), Apron, Bench, Bench- Stop, Bench-Hook (See Lessons 7, 29), Bits, Bit Brace, Brads (See Nails), Brushes, Chisels, Clamps, Compasses, Files, Gauge, Glue, Grindstone, Hammer, Knife, Lumber, Nails and Brads, Nail Set, Oil Can, Oilstone, Paints (See Stains), Pencil, Planes, Putty, Rule, Sandpaper, Saws, Saw Set, Scraper, Screw Driver, Shellac, Stains, Square, Strop Tee Bevel, Try-Square, Varnish, Vise, Wax 136 to 206

New Lessons

Lesson XVA Study Piece. 55A

Lesson XXIVA Tandem Mortise and Tenon - - 90A

Lesson XXIVB Abreast Mortise and Tenon - 90C

Lesson XXVIIA Test Problem. 98A

The Illustrations

In all the work illustrated in this book the posi¬ tions should be natural and easy. Do not try to follow

any particular rule or to copy any person’s po¬ sition. Fig. 1 and the illus¬ trations which follow are from pupils at work and not posed to suit the fancy of any one.

They are good examples t o be studied rather than copied. They illustrate gen¬ eral principles rather than bits of detail.

They are scrupulously correct for the

Fig. 1. Planing.

person photographed, but may not be exactly the proper position for pupils of different height or of different physique.

By referring to the other texts of the Mechan¬ ical Science Series, similar, but not identical, illus¬ trations will be found. These slight differences have been carefully planned to make the illustra¬ tions of the various texts supplement each other.

If you find yourself using much strength it is probably caused by not using the tools properly. Although you are not expected to imitate the po¬ sitions of other pupils, still you must ever keep in mind that there is a correct way of using the tools. The correct way is the easiest and best way, and if you have become accustomed to using the tools improperly, change your method at once. Do not insist that your way is easier or better for you. Change to the methods given in this book at once and you will soon be doing more and better work.

Fig. 2. Sighting for Straightness.

Be 'particular to have the light fall properly upon the piece. Experiment by holding the piece in different positions

Fig. 8. Testing from Edge to Edqe.

The try-square may be held either side up, but the beam should not be placed against the edge in making this test. Compare this use of the try-square with that shown in Fig. 12.

PART I Elementary Exercises

LESSON I

To True the First Surface of a Piece of Wood

Material— A piece of pine If inches thick, lj inches wide, and 12J inches long.

Examine the piece thoroughly for broken corners, checks, knots, and other defects. Select for this lesson the best surface. Examine very carefully the surface to be worked; first by sighting with the eye from end to end to determine if it is straight (Fig. 2); second, by applying the try-square blade as shown in Fig. 3 to determine if it is straight across from edge to edge. Next, with both hands hold the piece between you and the side light, and sight across the piece from edge to edge, tilting it to such an angle as will make the line of sight pass just over the front edge to the back edge as shown in Fig. 4. If the piece is out of wind both back corners of the surface will show equally. If the piece is in wind one back corner will show more than the other back corner and the high back corner may be planed down. Although we should always look for a high back corner, we may take the piece out of wind by planing the alter¬ nate front corner. It is usual to plane an equal amount from each of these corners or more from the one which is thicker. Place the piece on the bench as shown in Fig. 1. Do not put the piece in the vise.

Fig. Jf. Looking for Wind or Twist.

Remember to repeat the three tests after every few strokes of the plane, so that when the piece is out of wind it will be straight from end to end, and also from edge to edge. A straight edge may be used for test" ing the straightness of the surface. (See Fig. 5.)

An excellent method for aiding the eyes in testing is to plane up three pieces as nearly perfect as

ELEMENTARY WOOLWORK 13

possible and after testing them with the eyes and try-square, try them together. First test number one with number two, then number one with number

Fig. 5. Using a Straight Edge. Learn to examine the edge as shovm in big. 2. 2 he straight eage should be used only to see

whether the first test has been successful.

three, and then number two with number three. Continue to plane and test them in this manner until each one will fit the other two. This exercise will well repay the time. The three pieces required for the bench-hook (Lesson 7) may be dressed up at once and compared in this manner.

If in planing the surface does not work perfectly smooth, make a careful examination of the plane.

When the plane is in proper order it will make a shaving nearly the full width of the bit. The shaving should be thickest at the center, and curve slightly to the edges. If you are not strong enough to cut a wide shaving, the bit may be ground so rounding that it will cut only a very narrow shaving. If the plane is cutting too thick or too thin a shaving, turn the brass milled thumb-nut, which is under the plane iron, until the proper thickness of cut is obtained. As the plane cuts deepest at the center of the cutting edge, the plane should be held parallel with the sides of the piece and with the center of the bit over the place requiring the heaviest cut. (See Fig. 6.) Lift or tilt the plane on the return stroke so that the bit will not touch the wood. (Figs. 7, 8, 9.) Hold the plane firmly, but do not attempt to make it cut by using an extreme amount of pressure. Bear down on the toe, or front end, of the plane in starting (Fig.

Fig. 6. Jointing an Edge. !)> and on the opposite The plane may be moved along end, or heel, in finishing either side or alonq the center. ., , ,

the stroke (Fig. 10). In case a shaving is to be taken off only a part of the length of the piece, raise the heel of the plane gradually while it is moving forward, or in case the shaving is to com¬ mence part way of the length, lower the heel to the cut while the plane is moving forward Do not

Fig. 7. Tilting the Plane. This is to avoid dulling the cutting edge on the return stroke.

be satisfied until you have asurface not only straight and out of wind, but also entirely free from any roughness caused by the plane.

You will prob¬ ably discover that it is quite difficult to plane the piece so that it will be straight and square to the

extreme ends.

The reason for this is that you do not bear down enough on the toe of the plane and lift enough on the heel of the plane as you start the stroke; and in finishing the stroke you do not bear down enough on the heel and lift enough on the toe of the plane. The gradual changing from bearing on one end of the plane to bearing on the other end of the plane is the one very important point which you must learn if you are to do good work.

Fig. 8 Lifting the Plane. This is to avoid auding the plane on the return stroke.

You will soon discover that some pieces of wood plane more smoothly in one direction than in the other. Always plane in the direction that will pro¬ duce the smooth¬ est surface. This is called planing with the grain. In some pieces the grain runs in both or many direc¬ tions, and it is impossible t o plane them en¬ tirely smooth.

Such pieces are sometimes finished with a scraper.

Tn getting the surface to the proper shape use as little of the material as you possibly can. This not only will save much time and material, but is also the mark of a skilled work¬ man.

When the first surface is finished, t0 ' Position in Fimshin s **Stroke. make a pencil mark on it about 1 inch long. This mark should be near the center of the piece, from end to end, and at nearly right angles to the edge, and should extend to the edge which is to be planed

Fig. 9. Syringing the Plane to one Side. This keeps the bit from touching the material on the return stroke.

next (Fig. 11). This is called a face-mark, and not only indicates that the surface has been properly shaped, but also that measurements and lines are to be made from this side.

This piece should always be held by placing the end against the bench stop. If there is a tail vise do not use it, for you will

Fig. 11. Face-Marks. Unless the piece is to J^g mor g certain be cut in two but one set of face-marks is

used. When there is but one set they are to use the plane placed near the center. properly if the

piece is not held rigidly; and when the plane is properly used the piece will not move from its place in front of the stop, and there will be no need of using the vise.

LESSON II

To Plane an Edge at Right Angles to a Surface

The first edge, or second surface, is examined in but two ways: for straightness, as in Fig. 2, and to see whether it is at right angles to the first surface, as in Fig. 12. In using the try-square press the head or beam firmly against the face surface. The face surface is always the one having the face-mark. If the blade of the try-square does not touch the edge across its entire width, plane down the high places until it does. Do not try to make the plane cut at one side by tilting it, but move the central part of the bit (the part which cuts the thickest shaving)

Fig. 12. A Try-Square on the First Edge. Observe carefully the position of the hands.

over the places requiring the heaviest shaving, as shown in Fig. 6.

Be careful to keep the edge straight and smooth. Avoid as much as you can taking shavings only a part of the length. Plan to have the last shaving extend the entire length of the piece. Move the plane parallel with the edge. Do not be satisfied until the try-square touches the entire surface. Be very particular to have the edge straight to the extreme ends. Do not put this piece in the' vise. When this edge is finished, make a face-mark on it lie same as on the first surface, as shown in Fig. 11.

You should exercise care in selecting the edge to be first planed. Plan to remove as little material from this edge as possible, for this will become the working edge, and should therefore contain the best material. The greater part of the excess ma¬ terial is to be removed from the third and fourth surfaces. If the amount of waste is large enough, it may be removed by using the rip-saw first, and afterwards finishing with the plane.

LESSON III Use of the Gauge

See that the spur is sharpened to a knife-like point, so that it will make a smooth line. Set the gauge by holding it in the left hand, the thumb under

Fig. 13. First Piece or Rule.

the beam and against the head, the first finger on top of the head and the other fingers grasping around the beam. With the right hand hold the rule, opened to one foot long, against the head, and directly behind the spur and on top of the beam, Fig. 14. By pressing with the rule, or with the thumb and finger, the head will be moved until the proper line on the scale is brought directly behind the spur. Then lay the rule aside, holding the head in place by the pressure of the first finger of the left hand until the thumbscrew has been tightened with the right hand. Test the gauge to see if it has been correctly set by applying the rule again.

To draw the line, take the gauge in the right hand, three fingers grasping the beam—the first finger

over the head and the thumb against the beam, and as nearly opposite the spur as is con¬ venient. Always place the head cf the gauge against a side having a face-mark.

Fig. 15. Drawing a Gauge Line.

Take the piece used in Lesson 2, and, with the gauge set to \ inch, draw a line on the side first trued, \ inch from the face edge. Before attempt¬ ing to draw the line it is well to practice the move¬ ment of the hand and arm by rolling the gauge until the spur will not touch the surface of the piece, and then making the movement as if drawing the line the entire length of the piece. Next allow the spur to touch a very little, making a very light lino. Gradually increase the strength of the line until a line of the proper heaviness has been produced.

Next draw a line £ inch from the face, and then a line 1 inch from the face, and lastly a line 1| inches from the face (Fig. 13). Make all these lines of equal strength and smooth and straight to the extreme ends. It is usually more con¬ venient to rest the end of the piece against the bench stop; and, in order to draw the line to the

extreme end of the piece, it will be neces¬ sary to roll the piece asshown at Fig. 16. Be careful to hold the work and gauge so that you can easily see how deep the spur is cutting, and also whether the head cf the gauge is against the

Fig. 16. Finishing a Gauge Line.

face side. If you are careful in making a light line at first, you will have no serious difficulty in drawing a line through knots or over diagonal grain.

LESSON IV

Finishing the Third Side

Take the piece used in Lesson 3 and plane the third side or second edge, planing down to the inch gauge line, making the piece 1J inches wide. It will be no¬ ticed that when you have planed sufficiently to remove the rough edge caused by the gauge spur that the piece

is a very little less than 1§ in¬ ches wide.

This is caus¬ ed by planing to the inside edge of the line. If you wish to have the piece full width you must set the gauge enough wider to allow for planing the line off.

Fig. 17. Measuring.

See that the edge is square by using the trysquare as on the first edge (Fig. 12). If the edge is planed to the line, it should be straight, yet it is best to examine it very carefully near the ends and at the middle by using the rule as shone in Fig. 17. In measuring with the rule the fingers grasp the rule; the end of the thumb rests against the piece of wood, and the rule is moved until one of the inch gradua¬ tions is at one edge of the piece. Do not place the end of the rule even with one edge of the piece. Always hold the rule on edge, so that the graduations will comein coutact with the surface being measured. You may not be pressing hard enough on the toe of the plane in starting, or on the heel in finishing the stroke, as directed in Lesson 1. Only by planing the piece straight to the extreme ends will you get the proper control of the plane. No mark should be placed on this side.

If you do not get the edge perfectly square and straight by the time you have reached the line, do not continue planing by guess, but draw another guage line very near to the edge and try again to plane to a line. Perhaps your plane is set too heavy, or perhaps the iron has shifted so that it is cutting too much on one side. Examine your tools and the edge thoroughly before trying the second time, and then, by cutting a very thin shaving and testing the edge after each stroke of the plane, you should be able to get the edge exactly correct. If you fail the second time, draw another line and try again and again until you do succeed in getting the edge exactly correct. Each time work more slowly and with more care . Keep a constant watch of the condition of the plane, for it is quite impossible to make the edge true if the plane is not properly set or is dull. Review often the directions for adjusting and sharpening the plane given in Part TII.

LESSON V

Finishing the Fourth Side

Gauge the piece to If inches thick on each edge and plane down to these lines. Use the blade of the try-square as in Fig. 3 to see if the surface is straight from edge to edge or from line to line. You may also use the try-square as on the second and third surfaces, placing the head of the trysquare against the surface which has a face-mark;. Also measure with the rule at each corner, as in Fig. 17. If all these tests show your piece to be correct you will have done well. If the work is very accurate the square will fit the fourth surface when the beam is against the edge which does not have a face-mark. Do not plane the fourth surface to make the try square fit in this position. This is only an additional test for proving the accuracy of the work. There should be no mark placed on this surface.

In case your piece is below size, uo not discard it for another piece, but work it to a smaller size, testing it carefully to see that it is the same size at each end. Should you plane below your gauge line, do not attempt to complete the piece by simply planing and measuring, but set the gauge to the smaller end and draw a line entirely around the piece. Then plane carefully to this line, and test with the try-square and the rule.

LESSON VI

Laying off Spaces and Lining

Place the rule on the surface to be measured and, with the knife in the right hand and the back of the blade against the rule, as shown in Fig. 18, make a mark at the desired distance with the extreme point of the knife blade. Lay off as many points as you can without moving the rule.

Take the piece used in Lesson 3, Fig. 13, and lay off twelve 1-inch spaces. Begin about \ inch from the end, so that there will be left at each end of the piece some waste material which may be cut off in finishing the ends after the scale is completed.

Fig. 18. Marking off Spaces.

Place the point of the knife in the first mark and move the try-square up to the knife while holding it, as in lining the shelf border (Fig. 19). Hold the

try-square firmly, and with the knife begin at the farther edge and draw a line across the piece close up to the blade of the trysquare. In holding the try-square, it is best to place the thumb against the head, the first and second fingers on the blade, and the third and fourth fingers against the piece, as shown in Fig. 19. When the head of the try-square is on the opposite side, as in drawing lines at the opposite end, the fingers are against the try-square and the thumb against the piece (Figs. 20 and 42).

See that the line is straight, and that it passes exactly through the center ^ os ^ on Lmlng - Reverse of the mark made by the

point of the knife when laying off the spaces Be sure to keep the head of the try-square against the edge having the face-mark. Draw a line in a similar manner at each of the points. After the lines have been drawn the marks made by the point, of the knife should not be visible. By standing with the left side a little toward the bench one will be more apt to draw the lines correct¬ ly. When near the opposite end the try-square and piece should be reversed and the lines drawn as shown in Fig. 20. In drawing lines on a wide piece the try-square is held as shown in Fig. 21. No matter how wide or how narrow the piece, the knife must be held at the same angle the entire length of the line. Any variation in the angle which the knife makes with the surface of the piece is quite certain to cause an irregularity in the line. Ifyouaredrawing lines on a piece which is too long to be re- Fig. 22. Lining at the Left-Hand End.

Fig. 21. Lining on a Wide Piece.

versed you may draw the lines at the left-hand end,

as shown in Fig. 22.

After completing these lines, go back over each line with the trysquare and examine them very carefully to see if they are exactly straight across. Hold the piece up to the light, as shown in Fig. 23.

Place the rule on edge on the piece and see whether the lines coincide with the inch lines on the rule. If they do not appear to be square, or at the proper distances, go over them again with the knife and correct them.

Next lay off J inches, and draw lines through these points from the line which is 1 inch from the edge to the face edge. When these are completed and corrected, lay off J inches, and draw lines from the line which is \ inch from the edge to the face edge. Next lay off J inches, and draw lines to the remaining gauge line. Be careful to make full, even lines, holding the knife well on the point. Should these lines not be neatly and accurately drawn, draw similar gauge lines on the opposite side, and repeat the knife lines as on the first side.

Continue to practice laying off spaces and draw¬ ing lines until you can make every line correctly.

It is useless to attempt to make joints or construct any of the models until you have learned to lay off spaces and draw lines correctly. If necessary, plane off the lines and try again. Make a gauge line to plane to, and plane the side to correct shape before attempting to repeat the lining.

LESSON VII

Bench-Hook

Select a piece of stock of poor quality (sap or small knots) J of an inch thick, 4 inches wide, and 12 inches long. Dress it with the plane on all four sides, planing it out of wind, the edges square, and the ends of equal width and thickness.

Select two more pieces of the same length and thickness, and each 2 inches wide. Make these also smooth, straight, out of wind, and their sides and edges parallel. Follow the same method in work¬ ing these three pieces as in dressing up the first piece.

Nail the pieces to¬ gether as shown in Fig. 24, using six-penny box wire nails. Lay onecf the narrow pieces on the bench and start a nail as shown in Fig. 25. After the nail has been driven into the piece a very short dis¬ tance, examine it from two directions to see if it is perpendicular to the surface of the piece. If not, move it with the hand until it is. After placing it in correct position, hit it a light blow with the hammer and ex¬ amine it again. Con¬ tinue to drive it a little at a time, examining it after each blow until you are certain it is entering the wood hold the hammer as

Fig. 25. Starting a Nail. Examine the nail from twi positions as in boring (Figs. 35 and 36)

properly. Be careful to shown in Fig. 25, and drive this nail until it just

pricks through the piece.

See if the nail is properly located to enter the center of the edge of the wide piece, and not so near the end as to split the piece. Start three more nails in the same man¬ ner, being careful to lo¬ cate them correctly (Fig. 24). After the four nails are properly started, place the piece containing them on the edge of the wide piece and adjust it so that the edge of the narrow piece will be even with the surface of the wide piece (Fig. 26).

The points of the nails will help to keep the piece in place while you take the hammer and drive the first nail into the wide piece. If the nails we re driven through too far in start¬ ing, turn the piece over Fig. 27. Using a Nailset. and drive them back until they will just scratch the edge of the wide piece. -

If the piece now appears to be all right, drive the nails in their full length and, with the nailset, set the heads about J*. of an inch below the surface,

Fig. 28, Using a Nail for Nailset.

as shown in Fig. 27. If no nailset is at hand, the head of a nail may be used as a nailset, as shown in Fig. 28.

In case you wish to withdraw a nail after it is partly driven, use a claw-hammer and block, as shown in Fig. 29.

After the two pieces are nailed to the edges of the wide piece examine them to see if their edges are smooth, or flush, as it is termed, with the surface of the wide piece. If the joints are not flush, plane them down as shown in Fig. 30.

As the bench-hook is to be used as a cutting

Fig. 29. Withdrawing a Long Nail.

board andfor saw¬ ing, etc., it is not necessary to smooth the ends.

When it is all completed, look it over carefully to see how well the

Fig. 80. Planing a Joint Flush.

pieces fit each other, and whether they appear to have been well planed. Supplementary Lesson No. 29 is a bench-hook of a more difficult design, which may be made in place of this one.

Fig. 31. Jointing an Edge < f a Thin Piece. Use the vise only when the piece is too thin to hold cgainst the stop. Except for very light planing you should stand more at the end of the piece than the young man in this picture. Compare this position with that shown m Fig. 1.

LESSON VIII

Shelf Border

The stock for this exercise should be of good quality straightgrained pine. It should be 17| inches long, 3| inches wide, and inch thick.

Dress up the best side and best edge, as in Lessons 1 and 2, ex¬ cept that in jointing the edge you should place the piece in the vise, as shown in Fig. 31. Gauge to 3 inches wide and finish the second edge.

Gauge to \ inch thick and finish the back, or second side.

Lay off on the back, or second side, J inch spaces, leaving about }- inch of waste at each end. Draw lines with knife and try-square across the piece through each of these marks, as shown in Figs. 19 and

20. Test the lines carefully, as shown in Fig. 23.

Set thegauge to 2\ inches and draw a line on the second, or back side. This line should be just J inch from the second, or back edge, and, if the piece is un¬ der size, set the gauge enough less than2Jinches to make the line just } inch from the back edge. Do not set the gauge to