Elementary agriculture for southern schools

Preface

The development and maintenance of interest is the secret of successful teaching. Young people, who have become interested in their school work and have learned that it will be of practical value in the vocations of life, will continue their studies after leaving school. With the present crowded programs in the elementary schools, it is impossible for the teacher to devote a great amount of time and preparation for carrying on the work. This text is planned to aid the busy teacher and to give the pupil some general facts relating to agriculture. It is hoped that the nature and the scope of the subject-matter will aid in linking together the home and the school.

After several years of experience in teaching agricul¬ ture, it has been found that teachers have difficulty in producing the desired inspiration from a mass of dry agricultural facts. The correlation of mind and hand enters so well into the study of agriculture that the entire course should center around doing things. Realiz¬ ing that the compilation of a mass of agricultural facts does not fulfill this ideal, the authors have selected from the field of agriculture those topics which are practical. The subject matter and practical exercises given in this text have been tried and have been found applicable in rural schools. The pedagogical principle involved in this text are the appeals made to the minds of the boys and girls by introducing those things which are most valuable in a well-rounded education. Every child likes pets. He is greatly interested in collecting and in mak¬ ing things. Above all, he should learn to realize the importance of agriculture.

The material has been arranged so that the prospective and experienced teacher may carry on the work of teach-

in

IV

PREFACE ing agriculture without great difficulty. It is possible for the pupil to gain information and make application of the knowledge without personal supervision from the teacher, except during the short periods allowed for studying agriculture.

Inexperienced teachers will find a list of questions at the end of each chapter. These are intended to guide the students in their study. The practical work is arranged so that most of it may be assigned as Home Projects. The periods for practical exercises may thus be devoted to reports and discussions of what the pupils are doing. Written reports are valuable for composition work. Realizing that many students have difficulty in using a dictionary, a list of words with definitions, applying to the material in the text has been added. References have been given to aid the pupils and the teacher. These include bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agricul¬ ture and from other sources, all of which may be had without cost.

The illustrations are made from actual photographs of farm operations. They offer many suggestions to stu¬ dents who will study them.

In presenting the subject-matter, the authors have tried to avoid the usage of technical terms, beyond the understanding of the average grade pupil.

We wish to acknowledge and express our appreciation for the valuable suggestions of Professor P. G. Holden, Director of the Agricultural Extension Department of the International Harvester Company; Dr. Chas. A. Shull, Plant Physiologist of the University of Chicago; President Henry G. Bennett, of the Southeastern State Teachers College, Durant, Oklahoma; N. Conger, Direc¬ tor of Teachers’ Training, Southeastern State Teachers College, and many other teachers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The following list indicates the sources of illustrations that are not the property of the authors and publishers. Numbers refer to the Figures.

Oklahoma A. & M. College, Hereford, Brae Repeater, Figure 51.

Stark Brothers Nursery and Orchard Co., Louisiana, Mo., Figure 145.

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Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Study of Agriculture. 1

II. Study of Seeds. 9

Chapter I The Study Of Agriculture

Agriculture the Pillar of Industry.—What is agri¬ culture? Why do we study agriculture? Agriculture is the science and art of producing plants and animals use¬ ful to man. It is the most important industry in the world. It may be compared to the foundation of a house. If the foundation of the house is strong and well built, it will stand for years and be of great value to man. This is true of agriculture, because it is the foundation of all business. Without it we would not have juicy peaches, watermelons, and other delicious fruits to eat. We would not have vegetables such as green corn, red tomatoes, radishes, potatoes, and the like. From the farm comes the “staff of life,” which is bread. The raising of live¬ stock supplies our tables with meat, milk, butter, and eggs. Furthermore, the clothing that we wear is made from cotton, flax, wool, and silk, which are produced on the farm. From the forest we get lumber for buildingpurposes, pulp for paper, wood for fuel, edible nuts, and many other valuable products such as rubber, maple sugar, resin, and turpentine. It is a well known fact that when the farmers of America produce good crops, busi¬ ness flourishes, our needs are supplied, and people are happy.

Knowledge is Power in Business and Farming.—

Whatever occupation one may choose for his life’s work, it is well that he have a fundamental knowledge of farm¬ ing. Whether a doctor, minister, lawyer, teacher, merchant, banker, mechanic, carpenter, dealer in lands, orfollower of any other profession or vocation, one will find a knowledge of general agriculture helpful in his work. The artist who is familiar with flowers, trees, the contour of lands, and with plant and animal life in general, dis¬ covers and uses many beautiful models of Nature’s own creation, which are pleasing to the eye when portrayed in a picture. The busy housewife, who knows good fruits and vegetables, poultry, butter, and eggs, will purchase

Fig. 1.—Pigs in Alfalfa.

food of good quality at reasonable prices, and thus pre¬ vent waste and unnecessary expense in furnishing the table. A good merchant needs to know the varieties of goods, farm equipment, tools, and luxuries demanded by the farmers in his district. If he is familiar with the crops and animals produced in his community, he is better able to supply the needs of the farmers and pre¬ vent loss from credit accounts. Bankers'throughout the country have many dealings with farmers and are work¬ ing for the betterment of farming. Boys who expect to become bankers need agricultural training.

Many boys and girls who study agriculture in the pub-

THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 3

lie schools will return to the farm and follow farming as a business. These students will learn many valuable lessons in class, which will aid them in their work.

Joy in Agriculture.—There is an unending joy in watching the growth of plants; in seeing how the buds unfurl, how the leaves expand, and how the flowers ap-

Fig. 2.—Hen and Chicks.

pear. Is there anything more enjoyable than visiting a farm where there are young pigs frisking about in the grass and alfalfa? Does it ever occur to you that the old hen, hustling about the orchard, with ten or twelve chicks, for which she may be scratching, will be a source of profit as well as pleasure?

Do You Like Pets?—Did you ever own a pet rabbit? Notice what funny whiskers he has. His nose turns up at everything. He has a very odd way of holding his long ears. Hasn’t he the softest coat? Next to a rabbit, a little mule colt is the funniest thing. What long slender legs he has; what ears; what an unusual tail, and what a mischievous twinkle in his eye. He is not to be trusted, because the long hind legs fly up most unexpectedly.

Why is a Survey Important?—By making a survey of the farm one learns to know the conditions as they

Fig. 3.—Did you ever own a pet rabbit?

really exist. The facts learned will be of much value in talking intelligently about the home and the vocation of one’s parents. By comparing the information gained in the study of the home farm with the reports of friends and classmates, many lessons will be learned regarding the most profitable kinds of farming that may be fol¬ lowed in a neighborhood.

THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE

In Making a Survey, it will be helpful to take a note¬ book and make a list of the important facts about the farm. Note the name of the owner, size of the farm, list of the crops raised, kinds and number of animals, manner of marketing, fencing, equipment, implements, sheds, feed for stock, and number of people employed upon the farm.

Fig. 4.—A mule colt. Watch his heels.

It is not intended that one should make an elaborate survey, but obtain those facts of importance to the school district.

The Value of the Survey is that it arouses interest in the home and school. It may present some new view of the methods of handling crops. There is always some branch of agriculture that is especially suited to par¬ ticular sections of the country. By combining the results of the survey, we learn what is most important to be studied during the year. While it is desirable to have some knowledge of general agriculture, we should strive to improve conditions in the community.

We may not live upon farms, but most of us are ac¬ quainted with farmers and may ask them about the amount of their farm products. Each member of the class providing information from some particular farm of the community will furnish enough information to decide what is the most important product.

1. Why is agriculture called the foundation of industry?

2. In what way are you depending upon agriculture?

3. What foods on your table come from the farm?

4. Why do we say, “Knowledge is Power”?

5. Why should boys and girls who do not expect to live upon a farm study agriculture?

6. How are the occupations of men in your community in¬ fluenced by agriculture?

7. What is the value of pets?

8. W T hat is a community survey?

9. Of what advantage is a community survey?

10. Tell how to make a community survey.

Object: Collecting and assembling information.

Materials: Notebook, pencil, measuring equipment.

Procedure: If you live upon a farm, collect the following information from your farm: (if you do not), visit a farm and obtain the information from the people operating it.

1. Give the name of the owner of the farm.

2. Give the location and size of the farm.

3. Give the names of the owners of adjoining farms.

4. List the crops raised upon the farm you are studying, and give the number of acres planted to each.

5. How does the owner dispose of his crops?

THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE

6. What kinds of animals are raised upon the farm, how many of each kind?

7. What use is made of these animals?

8. What animals are raised for their products?

9. How are the animal products marketed?

10. What kind of fencing is used upon the farm?

11. How many people work regularly upon the farm?

12. List the farm equipment used tp operate the farm

13. How much grain and hay is kept?

Results: Write out a report of your visit to the farm, which will cover suggestions given in the procedure. Tabulate the results of the entire class upon the blackboard.

Object: To draw a map of the farm.

Materials: Pencil, ruler, paper, tape line.

Procedure: 1 . The size and boundary lines of the farm are first determined. If these are not known, it may be necessary to measure them.

2. Draw a map of the farm, representing the size in proportion to the measurements. The house, bams, and other buildings should also be located in their relative places.

3. Locate the fields, lanes, and roads within the boundary lines of the farm. This may not be difficult, if the farm is small.

Results: Compare the maps with those of other members of the class. Write the names of the crops grown in each field and the rotation on the map. Also, indicate the number of cattle, hogs, horses, and mules pastured upon different fields.

Art. Skill in doing things.

Contour. The outline of the surface of the ground with respect to hills and valleys.

Farm. A plot of land devoted to the raising of domestic plants and animals.

Frisking. To move quickly and playfully.

Fundamental. The most important part or the foundation.

Luxuries. Those things which are pleasing, or rare, or costly.

Portray. To picture; to represent by drawing.

Procedure. Methods or steps taken in doing anything.

Rotation. Cultivation of succession of crops on the same land. Science. A knowledge of principles or facts.

Survey. Finding out the conditions, quantities and qualities of things.

Tilling. To prepare for seed planting and to cultivate.

Unfurl. To let loose.

Chapter II

A Field Trip.—Would you not like to go into the fields and study the seeds of our common farm plants? During the month of September there are many kinds of valuable as well as harmful plants, which are bearing seeds. It is interesting and profitable to know what is being raised on the farms near your home.

Learn Seeds.—Did you ever stop to consider that most of the plants of next year will come from the seeds of the plants now growing in our fields? The cotton, corn, and grasses of next year will be largely determined by the quality of seeds planted. In fact, the plants you find growing in the fields are the parents of those which will grow next year. The strong and vigorous stalks of corn bear ears from which many strong stalks may grow. Selection means a larger yield, and greater profits for the labor of growing the crop.

You may be interested in knowing that the improve¬ ment in all our farm crops has come through selection and cultivation. Our cultivated plants were once wild. Man has selected the best from these until our cultivated plants not only provide for future propagation but also a large amount of food for the human race. Think of the hundreds of millions of people who eat rice, wheat, and corn as a part of their daily food. Think of the great needs of the people of the earth for food.

Seed Classification.—Experience shows that very few boys and girls or active plant growers are able to take a mixed sample of our familiar garden, field, and flower seeds and separate them into groups according to species or variety. The seed sample may contain other seeds, untrue to name, with insect life and foreign matter present. Hence, the crop may be planted at a loss and with disappointment to the grower.

Fig. 5.—An early selection of field corn, following most scientific methods of securing the best.

Cheap Seeds that are Expensive.—By obtaining

samples of seeds from stores or some other commercial source, some interesting studies may be made. It will be found that many seeds are not what the name upon the package implies. Many contain harmful weed seeds. Others contain a mixture of unknown seeds. The word “adulteration” is applied to these mixtures. Commercial brands of seeds should represent the best that can be obtained, but unfortunately many kinds are poorer than those grown at home. The mere fact that we read a glowing advertisement in a seed catalogue does not insure a large yield of corn nor a cotton crop free from boll weevil. A careful study of the different kinds of seeds will enable us to detect adulterations.

Collecting Seeds.—You will find it interesting to visit the fields, gardens, and woodlands of your com¬ munity, collecting for study the seeds that are useful and

Fig 6.—Small grains arranged for the display of heads.

A. Rye. B. Barley. C. Oats. D. Wheat.

harmful. Here you will get acquainted with the natural surroundings of the parent plants and learn how Nature aids them in producing seeds and in the struggle for existence. You will learn why some plants are stronger and better than others. There is much satisfaction in learning why good farmers, who have given their crops proper cultivation and have used proper management, are so successful, happy, and contented with their busi¬ ness.

Beginning the Field Selection of Seeds involves

the problem of securing and saving those which yield most. Men have spent years trying to improve the standard of field crops. Their beginnings were with very poor plants, and long continued efforts have been neces¬ sary to obtain our high producing varieties.

While many farmers do not have time to collect seeds according to the most scientific methods, the seeds of our

Fig. 7.—A. Good cotton stalk.

B. Poor cotton stalk.

common crops require some study. The idea of field selection, by making use of suggestions for special crop work, will aid in improving the home supply of seeds.

Corn.—After the corn has ripened, go through the field with a seed picking bag and husk the ears from the stalks that have produced the most corn without having any special advantages such as space, moisture, or fer¬ tility. Avoid the large ears on stalks standing singly with an unusual amount of space around them. Prefer¬ ence should be given plants that have produced most heavily in competition with a full stand of less productive plants.

“In all localities the inherent tendency of the plant to produce heavily of sound, dry, shelled corn is of most importance.

“Late maturing plants with ears which are heavy be¬ cause of an excessive amount of sap should be ignored.

Fig. 8.—A. Poor peanuts.

B. Good peanuts.

Sappiness greatly increases the harvest size and is likely to destroy the quality.

“Short, thick stalks are preferable. Short stalks are not easily blown down and permit thicker planting. Thick stalks are not so easily broken down and in gen¬ eral are more productive than the slender ones. The tendency for corn to produce suckers is hereditary. Seed should generally be taken from stalks that have no suckers.” (U. S. Dept. Agri., Farmers Bui, 415: p. 5.)

Improved Cotton.—In selecting seed cotton from the field it is desirable that it should be collected from plants that begin to fruit early, fruiting rapidly and continu¬ ously. Usually plants possessing these characteristics have a strong central stem, with their first fruiting branches formed early and close to the ground. Such plants may vary in height from three to five feet, de¬ pending on the variety, soil, and climatic conditions. Plants of this type produce larger yields than those fruit¬ ing later and with the fruits higher on the stem. Another

Fig. 9.—A good method of stringing seed corn. It may be handled conven¬ iently, disinfected in barrels and suspended upon nails.

important feature in selecting seed cotton is the size and number of divisions in the boll. Cotton yielding large bolls, averaging 60 to 70 to the pound, are more resistant to weather, easier to pick, and mature much more rapidly than cotton requiring 120 to 150 bolls per pound. Each boll may have from four to five cells in which locks are formed. The length of the fiber may vary from % to 1*% 6 inches in the upland varieties. Short staple cotton, like other farm crops, may be improved by selecting the high yielding strains with long, strong, fine fiber.

Storing the Seed Cotton.—In order to prevent injury from moisture, the picked cotton should be placed under cover. Later, the seeds may be picked from the cotton by hand. While only a small amount could be planted by such a method, the improved selections will provide better seed for the following year.

Oats.—“The improvement of oats through the selec¬ tion of individual plants or heads and the testing of these selected strains is interesting and valuable work for those

Fig. 10.—A schoolroom display adds to the attractiveness of the place.

who have the time and patience to devote to it. The best heads should be selected from strong and vigorous plants growing under normal conditions. The selected heads should be threshed separately by hand and the seed from each planted in a row by itself. The seed from each of the selected rows is threshed and planted; the best rows being again selected at harvest time for further testing and increase the next year.”

Peanut seed should not only be selected from plants that are mature, but from those producing a large num¬ ber of pods as well, By doubling the number of wellfilled pods on each plant, the yield from each acre will also be doubled. Many millions of bushels have been added to the corn crop of the country simply through the selection and improvement of seed.

“What has been done with corn is possible with the peanut, and where we now have an average yield of 34 bushels to the acre it is reasonable to expect this to be

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increased to 50 or 60 bushels through cultural methods and seed improvements.” (U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 431: p. 10.)

Storing Seeds.—The best method of treating seed corn after gathering is shown in the accompanying dia¬ gram. Binder twine will support 10 to 15 ears arranged in the manner illustrated. Ordinarily the best place to hang these strings of ears, until they are dry, is in an open shed or in an unused room of your school building.

Later storing in insect-proof boxes or barrels, will prevent losses by vermin.

Heads of small grain may also be bound in bundles as shown in Figure 6, and preserved for future study.

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate methods of preparing cotton and peanuts for school study.

Fig. 12.—Seeds mounted in bottles.

Destroying ^Afeevils or Grain Moths.—Before put¬ ting the seeds away for any length of time, it is a good plan to treat them to destroy weevils or moths. Carbon disulphide in a tight box, barrel, or room for two days will destroy any insects that may be upon the seed. The disulphide should be placed in shallow dishes or pans on top of the seed. One-half pint will treat ten bushels of seed and is net expensive. After the grain has been treated it should be thoroughly aired, taking care that no fire is near when the fumigating box is opened. The treatment may need to be repeated at times during the year.

A School Display.—While collecting various kinds of seeds, nothing will add more to the attractiveness of the school room than a well arranged display. These seeds will also be of value in later studies of seed germi¬ nation and in preparing exhibits. It is easy to hang tenear bunches of seed corn upon the walls where they may be away from rats and mice. After drying, all the small grains may be displayed in glass jars or glass-covered boxes. These should be plainly labeled and arranged in a manner similar to that in Figure 10. The heads of grains, grasses and weeds may be tied in neat bundles for arrangement along the walls. Cardboard and a small supply of glue or library paste may be used in making a very attractive display of individual seeds. Figures 11 and 12 were made in this way.

Even a board with small holes, covered with glass, pro¬ vides a substantial mount which will protect the seeds from vermin.

1. When is the best time of year to make a field trip to study

seeds?

2. Why is the study of seeds interesting and important?

3. Prepare a list of ten harmful and ten useful seeds.

4. Mention five impurities of seeds.

5. Explain the best method of studying seeds.

6. When is the best time to collect seed cotton? State five qualities of a good cotton stalk.

7. How many bolls of good cotton make a pound?

8. Give the length of fiber for upland cotton.

9. How may farmers improve the oat crop?

10. State four factors to be' considered in collecting peanut seed.

11. Suggest a good method of storing seed corn.

12. Explain a simple way of destroying weevils in grain.

13. What use can be made of the seeds collected in your study?

14. Mention five ways of arranging seed for a school display.

1. Field Trip. —After completing the study of seeds it is desira¬ ble to arrange for a field trip. Each pupil may be assigned to collect ten ears of corn, five kinds of small grains, and fifteen kinds of weed seeds. Arrangements should be made for enough bags or baskets for the pupils to carry the seeds collected.

2. Usually a field may be found near the school for selecting the corn. It may be well to ask the farmer to accompany the class in the study. He may render some valuable assistance and help create community interest in the school. The teacher should select a good type of stalk, bearing a good ear at a medium height as described in the text. This may be used as a model. Each pupil should obtain at least ten good ears from similar stalks. These should be tied with binder twine as shown in Figure 9.

3. A trip for selecting seed cotton and small grains may be arranged, or each pupil may be asked to collect small samples

the best seeds he can find at home, for future study.

Carbon Disulphide. A chemical compound known as “high life,” used in fumigating grain in storage.

Fumigation. To apply smoke or vapor for disinfecting.

Hereditary. Handing down or transmitting characteristics from the parent to the offspring.

Husk. To remove the shuck from the ears of corn.

Inherent. That which belongs to the plant by nature.

Lock. A natural bunch, or tuft of cotton.

Preference. The ability .to choose.

Propagation. The continuance of life.

Sappiness. Full of sap.

Species. A distinct kind or sort of plant or animal.

Staple. The fiber of cotton; the raw material.

Variety. A group of plants that look alike.

Vermin. Animals that are noxious or disliked by man as lice, mites, and rats.

Vigorous. Showing strength.

Weevil. Small insects which eat out the insides of grains.

“Seed Corn,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 415.

“Oat Production,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 431.

“Peanut Culture,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 43&

“Cotton Culture,” Oklahoma Bui. No. 97.

“Weeds,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 188.

Chapter III

Who Has the Best?—Do you know the different kinds of corn and cotton raised in your community? Do you know who raises the best? Is there any farmer in your school district who seems to raise better and more regular crops than his neighbors? The best way to find out whether your home products are better or worse than those of the other people in the district is to prepare an exhibit and compare them. How much do you know about the different kinds of grain and vegetables grown about your home? The object of a school exhibit is to find out who grows the best crops, what kind he grows, and how he grows them.

Comparing Products.—Most of our farmers raise some corn, cotton, and wheat. If small amounts of each of these should be brought into the school room, we would find that there is a great difference in the shape and color of the corn. There would probably be a differ¬ ence in the quality of the cotton and the length of fiber. Perhaps two or three farmers in the community have some product that is better than that of any others. By comparing all of these, we find out which is the best and try to produce just as good or better corn or cotton. This comparison creates a desire to grow products that repre¬ sent the latest improvement and the highest yield. Our desire is to reach a standard of perfection that gives the highest yield and the greatest income for the grower.

If you are showing a few ears of corn, along with those of several neighbors, does it not give you a feeling of pride to have a judge pronounce your exhibit better than all the others? If you are placed second or third, is there not a desire to improve your corn so that yours may be pronounced the best during the next contest? Compe¬ tition is not only the life of business, but it is the life of a school. If we feel the need of improving our minds and

Fig. 13.—An inexpensive school display.

of sharpening our observation it is well to try to com¬ pare our work with that of other people. Those things which we think are very good may be very poor com¬ pared with others of that class.

Parental Interest.—Do your fathers and mothers know what you are doing at school? Many of them depend upon the products which you are studying to provide food and the necessities of life. They immedi¬ ately become interested in the improvement of the yield of corn or cotton. When you have a school exhibit and find that a neighbor has much better corn than your father has, you will probably ask your father why he does not raise the kind of corn that his neighbors do. He may become interested and want to see the products compared. A visit to the school means a better under¬ standing of the work done. The fact that the school is doing some work to improve seeds and grain becomes known to many people. They take a direct interest, because, if the crops may be improved, it means a greater