Silent reading: a handbook for teachers

Front matter

GERMANE and GERMANE

'injiiMiiiitiii

Glass I 3/ ^^J.

Part Two

XI. Silent Reading in Grades I and II 205

XII. Supplementary Exercises for Grades I and II.... 234

XIII. Silent Reading in Grades III and IV 259

XIV. Silent Reading in Grades V and VI 280

XV. Silent Reading in Grades VII and VIII 297

XVI. Motivation of Drill Work in Reading 333

Appendix

A. Pamphlets Suitable for Use as Reading

Material 357

B. Books Suggested for Use in Grades I, II,

AND III 858

C. Books Suggested for Use in Grades IV and

D. Supplementary Reading Material for Grades

IV TO VIII 369

E. Literary Selections: For Boys and Girls

FROM 10 TO 15 Years of Age 373

F. List of Publishers 376

Index 379

Chapter I Silent Or Oral Reading

Importance of silent reading. The importance of teaching pupils to read effectively can scarcely be overestimated, since reading is the key to all subject-matter. The pupil's progress in school depends largely upon the speed and accuracy with which he can get the thought from the printed page. We say that he is good in geography, history, science, or mathematics if he can quickly grasp the important ideas from a mass of details, and if he can organize and retain those essentials.

Judging from the time allotment accorded reading in the grades, it is evident that the importance of this subject has been recognized. In fact, an examination of courses of study shows that in the primary grades approximately 70 per cent of the time has been devoted to the teaching of reading.

However, very little training in silent reading has been given even in the intermediate and grammar grades, notwithstanding the fact that the subject-matter is becoming more informational and definitely organized, and that success in its mastery demands specific training in how to study. Until recently the work of the teacher has "Qsually focused on oral rather than on silent reading; on expression rather than on getting, organizing, and retaining ideas. The question naturally arises, can this emphasis on oral reading be justified ?

Drawbacks of the oral-reading method. Speed in reading necessitates wide perception-units, that is, seeing groups of words instead of single words. Much oral reading for beginners tends to make the child word conscious and consequently develops motor habits of narrow eye-span. Dr. Schmidt says "the rate of oral reading, although subject to considerable variation, is confined within relatively narrow limxits because of its dependence upon the physiological mechanism involved in vocalization."^

A pupil's ability to read may well be measured by the number of thought units which he is able to recognize in a given time. Hence, flash-card exercises and other silent-reading devices which emphasize getting the idea are really of intrinsic value. They tend to develop good motor habits as well as attentive, purposeful reading habits. We have too long been reading ''from the nose down" rather than ''from the nose up."

Those who maintain that oral reading is the natural method for beginners believe that the lip-movements and inner speech of silent reading are reflex actions,

'Schmidt, W. A. "An experimental study in the psychology of reading-." Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 1, No. 2, University of Chicag-o Press, Chicago, 1917.

the physiological tendency to which is inherited. Qnantz believes that inner speech or articulation is an inherited tendency. He says ''it is not second nature, but inherently first nature ; not something to be unlearned, but to be outgrown."^ Other investigators maintain that the lip-movements and articulation of silent reading are acquired. In O'Brien's judgment, the explanation of the tendenc}^ to articulate when reading is to be found ''not in the list of inherited tendencies or connate reflexes, but in the acquired habits of the individual."^ According to him, the tendency to lip-movement and vocalization is built up by the methods of teaching reading.

Pintner does not believe that articulation is necessary, even though it may be a universal habit. As a result of one of his experiments he concludes "that articulation during the reading process is a habit which is not necessary for that purpose, that reading without articulation sacrifices nothing in the process of thought-getting," and "that practice in reading without articulation tends to reduce the time involved in the process."^ Schmidt further confirms the opinion of Pintner when he says :

It is quite possible, too, that if training in oral reading were discontinued at an early stage, and training

^Quantz, J. O. "ProT^lems in the psychology of reading." Psychological Revieio: Monograph Sum^leonent, Vol. 2, No. 1, (December) 1897.

^O'Brien, John A. SUent Reading. The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1921. '

^Pintner, Rudolph. "Inner speech during silent reading." -Psi/- chological Revieio, Vol. 20, (January) 1915.

in rapid silent reading were stressed, the tendencies toward inner speech might be greatly reduced and visualization cultivated, at least in part. As a matter of fact, we appear to have the ability to take in all kinds of situations visually without speech accompaniments/

The problem for the learner. Thus it seems that the vital problem for the learner is to recognize the symbol and immediately to associate it with that for which it stands. For example, the teacher writes the word *'run" on the blackboard. Her chief concern is that the child may associate the symbol **run** with the activity; the word need not be spoken. "Why should it be, since speaking it requires time and is an unnecessary step? The child is capable of recognizing many situations both in and out of school to which he makes no vocal response.

But why should 90 per cent of the teacher's time in the reading period be spent in teaching children to read orally, when 90 per cent of their reading must necessarily be silent both in school and out? Is it fair to have the child acquire attitudes toward a subject and to form habits and develop skill for which he will have little use either in school or out of it? The habits formed in oral reading may be a positive hindrance to the acquirement of speed and comprehension in silent reading. This contention is confirmed by Dearborn, who says that ^*the effect of articulating is to decrease ordinarily the span of

^Schmidt, W. A. "An experimental study in the psycholog-y of reading." Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 1, No. 2, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1917.

attention,"^ and consequently retard the rate of reading. In general we have eliminated oral spelling from the school program, not only for psychological reasons but also for sociological ones. We say it does not function in life's activities. "Why then should we discriminate in favor of oral reading and retain it, unless there is a need for it as such.

Values of oral reading. One should not infer, however, that oral reading has no place on the school program. It is certainly of importance. Few arts are more prized than that of being able to read and to speak with clear enunciation, distinct articulation, correct pronunciation, and pleasing cadence. But would not courses in literature, oral English, public speaking and dramatics offer ideal opportunities for training in this art? And why should we not stress training in pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, and the other factors of good speech, in all schoolroom activities? It is not enough to drill on these things for twenty minutes a day in one class, and neglect them in all others.

Oral rendition of literature. Good oral rendition greatly enhances the charm of certain poems and prose passages and also gives them greater depth of meaning. Indeed, one does not recognize the aesthetic appeal and the emotional significance of much choice literature until one reads it aloud. Such values as

^Dearborn, W. F. "The psychology of reading-." Columhia University Contributions to Philosophy and Bsychology, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1906.

IQ SILENT READING

are inherent in word imagery, euphony, meter, and tone cannot have the fullest significance nor be fully appreciated unless the selections are read well orally, as the following selections^ show.

He clasps the crag with hooked hands; Close to the sun in lonely lands, King'd with the azure world, he stands.

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls. And like a thunderbolt he falls.

Tennyson: The Eagle.

For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And the stars never rise but I see the bright eyes

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side Of my darling, my darling, my life and my bride,

In her sepulchre there by the sea —

In her tomb by the side of the sea.

PoE: Annabel Lee.

On Linden, when the sun was low.

All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, And dark as winter was the flow Of Iser, rolling rapidly.

But Linden saw another sight, "When the drum beat, at dead of night, Commanding fires of death to light The darkness of her scenery.

SILENT OR ORAL READING I7

By torch and trumpet fast array 'd, Each horseman drew his battle blade, And furious every charger neigh 'd To join the dreadful revelry.

Then shook the hills, with thunder riven, Then rushed the steed to battle driven, And louder than the bolts of heaven Far flashed the red artillery.

Campbell : Hohenlinden.

I impeach Warren Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach him in the name of the Commons of Great Britain in Parliament assembled, whose parliamentary trust he has betrayed. I impeach him in the name of all the Commons of Great Britain, whose national character he has dishonored. I impeach him in the name of the people of India, whose laws, rights, and liberties he has subverted, whose properties he has destroyed, whose country he has laid waste and desolate, I impeach him in the name and by virtue of those eternal law^s of justice which he has violated. I impeach him in the name of human nature itself, which he has cruelly outraged, injured, and oppressed in both sexes, in every age, rank, situation, and condition of life.

It is evident that the ability to read well orally has an important value that should be made available to every child. Any plan or method which gives training in correct pronunciation, distinct articulation, clear enunciation, and the pleasing, effective use of one's language certainly performs a valuable service.

To be appreciated, the best literature must be read well orally. Rhythm and word imagery demand it, as the above selections show. The famous passages of literature must be rendered orally if one is to feel the passion of the author or appreciate the grandeur of his ideas. The oral reading of such selections gives the child a keen sense of enjoyment, it enables him to express his aesthetic emotions. Training the voice to express man's finer feelings is an important aim of work in oral reading. Although most of the reading period is devoted to oral reading, the great majority of pupils who graduate from the elementary and high schools cannot read well orally because they have not learned to think and feel with the author.

Methods of teaching oral reading". The chief cause of this unsatisfactory condition is undoubtedly the method of presenting the reading material. At present there are two outstanding methods of teaching oral reading, the principles of which are diametrically opposed. Adherents of the old school believe that an appreciation of poetry is best developed by the detailed analysis of a few choice poems. They argue that such treatment gives the student a working method and thus develops an interpretative and appreciative attitude toward good literature. Adherents of the new school strongly condemn such procedure. They argue that the appreciation of poetry comes from extensive reading carried on as a leisure activity for the mere joy to be found in it.

In the first instance, we find that in order to insure comprehension a poem is studied line by line, analyzed, and dissected until its unity is destroyed and the selection is robbed of all its beauty. As a consequence pupils often come to dislike poetry and seldom read it either orally or silently except as a required task. In the second instance, the radical opponents of the former method claim that appreciation comes not from the intensive study of a few poems, but from reading much poetry. They take for granted that pupils are capable of comprehending a poem and interpreting it without other study than that furnished by a leisurely oral reading.

A combination method. Possibly these methods are extreme. Critics agree that the first requires overanalysis, that the second does not require sufficient study to insure apprehension, comprehension, and appreciation. It is therefore likely that the best results might be obtained by combining the commendable features of both. The teacher should use her judgment in selecting suitable methods.

Although it would not be desirable to impose an extreme form of the first method upon the pupils, yet poetry must be understood to be enjoyed, and consequently some analysis is necessary. It is surely possible to ask such questions about a poem as will aid in understanding it, and at the same time enhance its beauty for the reader. Take, for example, the little stanza :

Oh, the sunshine told the bluebird, And the bluebird told the brook, That the dandelions were peeping In the woodland's sheltered nook.

Have the pupils read this stanza and try to answer the question: *'What season of the year is implied by these lines?" The answers will indicate whether or not the pupils understand what they have read. Surely such a question does not rob the poem of its beauty !

Would the beauty of the following stanza be at all marred by asking the pupils to read it silently and then try to answer the question, **What is the name of the prettiest bridge^"

There are bridges on the rivers,

As pretty as you please; But the bow that bridges heaven.

And overtops the trees, And builds a road from earth to sky.

Is prettier far than these.

Have the pupils silently read the following poem, *^The Secret," then try to answer these questions. What was the secret? How do you suppose the tree told it?

We have a secret, just we three, The robin and I and the sweet cherry tree; The bird told the tree, and the tree told me. And nobody knows it but just we three.

But of course the robin knows it best, Because lie built, — ^I shan't tell the rest; And laid the four little — ^somethings — in it. I'm afraid I shall tell it every minute.

The teacher's aim should be to test the children's comprehension of a poem, not by having them give a detailed analysis of it, but by requiring answers to carefully worded questions that demand an understanding and appreciation of the chief thoughts and sentiments expressed in the selection.

Other reasons for teaching oral reading. Other arguments for emphasizing oral reading have been advanced, but they are hardly justified by recent scientific investigations. For example, some teachers claim that since so many pupils are of the auditoryimage type it is absolutely necessary that they read aloud in order to insure a high degree of comprehension. However, recent and thoroughgoing scientific experiments make such assertions untenable. Bryan^ subjected more than 600 school children to forty-one different tests in an effort to determine the type of imagery most dominant. After carefully interpreting his results, he decided that only five or ten of the pupils tested showed extreme eye-mindedness or ear-mindedness. Even such extreme cases are not handicapped by the kind of presentation, whether it be to the eye or to the ear, because each pupil quickly shifts to his particular image type.

iBryan, W. L. "Eye and ear-mindedness." Proceedings of the National Education Associationj 1893.

Betts, who has made one of the most thorough investigations of both voluntary and spontaneous use of imagery in thinking, concludes :

We shall have to insist that imagery, apart from inner speech, not only does not constitute the major part of the thought stream, but also that the thought stream may and does go on efficiently at times without any imagery whatever in it. And this absence of imagery does not mean mental poverty, but only mental selection. At this point, as at all others, the mind is but following the fundamental law of economy, and using the elements which will most efficiently do its work with the least effort/

Many teachers insist that one of the best means of testing a pupil's comprehension of a paragraph is to have him read it orally. They contend that the child's oral expression is a reliable index of his ability to interpret the thought. However, such statements cannot go unchallenged. As a matter of fact, some pupils read with considerable fluency and nearly perfect expression, but fail decidedly when tested for interpretation. This is shown not only in the grades, but even in colleges where students often fluently read passages in some foreign language, the content of which they are unable to to translate.

Criticism of reading methods. At present there are several outstanding criticisms of the methods of teaching reading now most generally used. There has been no clear-cut idea of what should be included in

^Betts, Georgre H. "The distribution and function of mental imag-ery." Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 26. 1909.

the subject; consequently, definition of aim lias not been possible. We have too long suffered overlapping and confusion of subject-matter. An analysis of courses of study shows that the following subjects are included under the heading ** reading": Literature, oral English, speech defects, elocution, dramatization, pageantry, oral reading, and silent reading. We cannot expect large returns to reward our efforts in teaching reading until we realize that each of the above subjects has its own definite objectives and methods upon which we must focus attention. We have failed distinctly to recognize the fields of oral and silent reading, and we have been unaware that training for efficiency in oral reading may not develop efficiency in silent reading.

A sugg'ested improvement. The authors maintain that silent reading is not a new study to be added to the curriculum, necessarily requiring the reading of some particular type of material. Bather, they believe it is a means by which pupils may be taught how to study. Correct methods should be applied to every lesson which the pupil is required to read silently. The possibilities of silent reading are important enough to warrant its being given an emphasis equal to that laid upon oral reading. A pupil who can give the main ideas of a selection in a well-organized form, after a single reading of it, is a good reader; the silent-reading period should aim to develop exactly this power in studying. However, if this skill is to be acquired, the teacher must keep in mind the four fundamental aims of silent reading — speed, comprehension, organization, and retention.

Chief aims of silent reading". The slow reader is continually handicapped. Every year increases the reading demands made on school children and adults. If the rate of silent reading can be increased, while the degree of comprehension remains the same, what a tremendous advantage will be gained!

The ability to comprehend what one reads is more, important, however, than the ability to read rapidly. The ability to cover many pages or to see many words in a short time profits the reader but little unless he understands the content. Comprehension is fundamental to all study; to the degree a pupil comprehends, to that degree he makes progress. All work, whether in oral or silent reading, should stress ' comprehension.

The ability to organize what one reads is the third aim in developing a method of teaching silent reading. It is of great importance. A pupil who can distinguish between points of major and minor importance, who has acquired the ability to organize the material he reads, who can outline and summarize efficiently, has mastered one of the essential qualifications demanded of a good reader.

Helping pupils acquire the ability to retain what they read is also of the utmost importance, because much of the knowledge acquired today in school is of value only in the future. In fact, the ability to think soundly and to reason depends on how well one can retain certain fundamental ideas. During the silent-reading exercises teachers should stress organization, association, routine reviews, and all other factors that aid in developing a good memory.

1. Efficient training in silent reading is of the utmost importance because most of the reading done in daily life is silent.

2. Oral reading is important because it can be used to teach pronunciation, articulation, and enunciation, as well as the effective rendition of the finer thoughts and feelings of the race as expressed in literature. It also aids in the appreciation of poetry and prose masterpieces.

3. The methods used for teaching oral reading have generally failed to obtain the desired results. Comprehension should be tested by carefully worded questions, the answers to which require an understanding and appreciation of the thought and feeling which the selection conveys.

4. Teachers have overlooked the importance of silent reading as a means of training pupils how to study.

5. If a method of study is to be developed by silent reading, the fundamental factors — speed, comprehension, organization, and retention, — must be emphasized daily.

6. Teachers have failed to get the greatest results from their teaching of reading because their energy has been dissipated by the inclusion of oral English, dramatization, literature, and other subjects under the heading reading. They have failed to recognize the two distinct fields of reading, oral and silent. They have assumed that training pupils to read orally is equivalent to training them to read silently, althougli in many respects the two methods of instruction and the respective aims are distinctly opposed to each other.

7. Silent reading is not a new subject to be added to the curriculum, rather a means of teaching a method of study.

8. Silent reading should receive at least as much emphasis as oral reading.

Bassett, Lee Emerson. A Hand'book in Oral Reading. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1917.

Briggs, T. H. and Coffman, L. D. Reading in PuMic Bcliools. Row, Peterson and Company, Chicago, 1911.

Gray, W. S. "Principles of method in teaching reading, derived from scientific investigations." The Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Part II. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1919.

Huey, Edmund B. The History and Pedagogy of Reading. The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1915.

Judd, Charles H. Reading: Its Nature and Development. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 4, (July) 1918. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Klapper, Paul. Teaching Children to Read. D. Appleton and Company, New York City, 1914.

O'Brien, John A. Silent Reading. The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1921.

Pintner, Rudolf and Gilliland, A. R. "Oral and silent reading." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 7, (April) 1915.

Chapter II

The importance of speed. Training for speed in reading is directly related to teaching pupils how to study effectively. The ability to read an assignment rapidly, and at the same time get the main points, is an essential factor in developing the habit of economical study.

The slow reader, in school and out, is handicapped. Courses of study are continually being made richer and broader; this demands more reading and greater discrimination. In life outside of school the demands made on the average person as a citizen and social being are increasing each year. In fact, success and happiness in life may depend largely upon the kind and scope of one's reading.

Inability of pupils to read rapidly. Students in normal schools and colleges are also working under a handicap because the length of the assignments is increasing, although little is done to increase their rate of reading. The authors vividly recall an experience which illustrates this variation in reading rates. The students in three elementary psychology classes in a certain normal school felt that an assignment of from thirty to thirty-five pages was far too long. These mature men and women, former teachers, who were spending an average of three hours on each assignment, brought the matter to our notice in a friendly way. We thought it best to inquire into their habits of study. Since the three classes were in a study auditorium for the first two hours each morning, the instructor and three or four assistants undertook to measure the approximate reading rates of the students in an unobtrusive manner. The investigators found that although a few students read at the rate of a page per* minute, some spent as much as eight and three-fourths minutes on each page, and the majority of the class read at the rate of a page every four and one-fourth minutes. The reading rate of these adults was twelve to fourteen pages an hour, although it should have been at least forty pages an hour, considering the simplicity of the subject-matter.

The discouraging feature of the outcome of this investigation was that even when those students did try to increase their rate of reading, they succeeded in doing so materially only when they were timing themselves. As soon as they failed to observe the time element of the experiment they relapsed into their usual rate, to which they had been accustomed since childhood.

Wide variation in reading" rates. The wide variation in the reading rates of pupils makes the task of increasing speed a very complex problem. Any teacher in any grade who will ask her pupils to read a given selection for a period of even three to five minutes can obtain sufficient data to demonstrate the wide variation in their reading rates. She will find that when measured for speed alone, pupils tend to fall into three groups, the noticeably slow readers, the medium-rate readers, and the very rapid readers. The following figures, which designate the number of words read per minute by a group of sixth-grade pupils, strikingly illustrate the sort of condition that one generally finds when making such an investigation: 374, 374, 362, 238, 197, 188, 181, 174, 170, 152, 145, 125, 121, 113, 98.

In many cases this variation in reading rate accounts for the assignment being too easy for some, too difficult for others, but nearly right for one-third to one-half of the class. Drill exercises, instead of placing the pupils on a more nearly even footing by decreasing the amount of difference between the rates of various groups, tends to increase it. Suggestions for economically handling a class which contains these three types of readers may be found in Chapter XV.

Monroe's experiments. Monroe gives the following statement of his conclusions regarding the probability of increasing the rate of silent reading:

The average silent-reading rate of eighth-grade pupils is approximately 240 words per minute for continuous material. Scientific investigation is revealing that this rate may be greatly increased by the application of appropriate methods. On the basis of data already secured, it is conservative to say that this rate could be increased 25 per cent. As a matter of fact, it is even conservative to say that it could be increased 50 per cent.

Silent reading is used as a tool in practically all subjects studied in the high school or in college. The pupil who is equipped to read at the rate of 300 words per minute has a decided advantage over the pupil who is equipped to read only 240 words per minute. It means that the pupil who reads more slowly either must spend more hours upon his work or do less work.

Of two pupils who spend an equal number of hours upon their work in high school, the one who reads at the rate of 300 words per minute will accomplish one-fourth more than the pupil who reads at the rate of 240 words per minute. This will mean that in the course of four years this pupil will do 25 per cent more work, which approximates the equivalent of an extra year of schooling.

The data which we have at hand not only show that the rate may be increased, but also that the degree of comprehension can be materially increased, perhaps to an equal extent. Therefore, not only may pupils be trained to read more rapidly, but at the same time they may be trained to read with increased understanding. Thus, the pupil who has been trained to read at the rate of 300 words per minute not only will gain an extra year's schooling during his high-school course, but if his training has been of the right sort, he will actually do a better quality of work.^

Danger in speed drills. One of the fundamental aims of silent reading is that of training each child

^Monroe, W. S. "Value of standardized silent-reading tests." Journal of Educational Research, Vol, 1, (February) 1920.

to attain his highest level of achievement in speed without lowering his rate of comprehension. Although rapid reading, even ''skimming," is of great importance, yet one would hesitate to increase the speed of reading if training in thought-getting would be sacrificed in doing so. Many teachers have the idea that the one great value of silent reading is that it trains for speed.

The authors have visited several of the leading city school systems and noted the great effort that teachers are making to help pupils acquire speed in reading. Some of them conduct reading classes in which the only direction given to the children is, ''Read this lesson through once as rapidly as possible.'' The teacher keeps a careful time check on each pupil. These time records are daily charted on the blackboard as an incentive to greater speed, not only for the individual but for the class as a whole.