The missionary heroes of Africa

Preface

It is no easy task to determine what names should stand in the front rank of the Missionary Heroes of Africa. In making his selection the present writer has at least the consolation of believing that while many, doubtless, would desire some honored name to be added^ few would wish any name on the list to be displaced.

The following sketches are offered in the hope that, brief and imperfect as they are, they may serve to communicate some spark of that divine fire which burns in all heroic lives, and nowhere clearer than in the lives of Christlike and Apostolic men. In the hope, also, that they may aid the imagination in forming some picture of the marvelously varied and romantic scenery of the African mission field.

Contents

PAGE

Chapter I : The Dark Continent Be- Fore The Dawn 15

i: MOHAMMEDAN AFRICA 1 5

Ii: PAGAN AFRICA . l6

III! THE HAND OF EUROPE ..... 22

IV : THE COMING OF THE MISSIONARY . . 2$

Chapter Ii: Robert Moffat, Mis Sionary Pioneer

i: A SCOTS GARDENER .

II*. THE INFANT COLONY

Hi: TAMING A FREEBOOTER .

IV : THE ROMANCE OF KURUMAN

V: THE MATABELE

VI : MOFFAT AND LIVINGSTONE

VII : FAREWELL TO KURUMAN

VIII : A MISSIONARY TO THE LAST

28 28 31 33

Chapter Iii: David Livingstone, Missionary Explorer . II Blantyre Mill

II! THE VALLEY OF MABOTSA

Hi: THE ROAD TO THE NORTH

IV ! CROSSING THE CONTINENT

V: DISCOURAGED AND LIONISED ix

54 54 56 59 64 72

CONTENTS

CHAPTER III [Continued]

VI : FIVE YEARS ON THE ZAMBESI VII : THE SLAVE TRADE VIII : SEVEN YEARS OF WANDERING

STANLEY

THE LONG LAST MILE

HOME ix :

x:

xi :

Chapter Iv: John Mackenzie Sionary Statesman

i: THE ELGIN APPRENTICE .

II I THE RESOLVED MAN .

III! FOLLOWING UP LIVINGSTONE

IV : THE MAKOLOLO DISASTER

v: in khama's country .

MIS-

VI : WHEN BLACK MEETS WHITE VII : THE BATTLE FOR BECHUANALAND

viii : "among god's little ones, content'

PAGE

90 92

CHAPTER V: STEWART OF LOVEDALE 1 : a son of the disruption

ii : with livingstone on the zambesi

hi: the builder of lovedale .

iv : the spirit of the fingoes

v: the birth of livingstonia

vi : the triumph of lovedale

vii : the founding of kikuyu .

viii: "without were fightings"

ix : "god is not dead" .

CONTENTS

XI

Chapter Vi: Laws Of Livingstonia

I! HENRY DRUMMOND'S HERO .

II I DEDICATED FROM BIRTH .

Ill I UP THE ZAMBESI TO LAKE NYASA

IV : THE BEACON AT CAPE MACLEAR

V : OVER THE GRAVES OF THE FALLEN

VI : TOIL AND TRIAL AT BANDAWE .

VII : A MARVELOUS TRANSFORMATION

VIII : THE CROWNING YEARS .

IX : THE LEGACIES OF WAR .

CHAPTER VII : MACKAY OF UGANDA i: STANLEYS LETTER II I A MISSIONARY ENGINEER

in: "poor moses" ....

IV : INTO THE LION'S MOUTH

V : FOR THE SOUL OF A KING .

vi : "great news" ....

VII : A ROYAL FUNERAL

VIII : MWANGA, THE PERSECUTOR .

ix : "the universe is god's"

x: "the best missionary since

stone"

LIVING

PAGE

142 142

143 145 147 152 153 158

163 168

171 171

179 182 184 186

Chapter Viii: Grenfell Of The Congo 197

I : FROM CORNWALL TO THE CAMEROONS . I97

Ii: THE GIANT CONGO 202

in : pioneering in the Peace .... 204 xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII [Continued] TAGK

IV I THE BELGIAN OCTOPUS 209

V I SORROWS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE . . . 212

VI I THE JOY OP HARVEST 215

vii : "the death of Tata finished" . . 218

CHAPTER IX: COILLARD OF THE ZAM- BESI , . . 219 1: a son of the huguenots .... 219

ii: life in basutoland 221

Hi: WAR AND EXILE . 223

IV : REVIVAL . 224

v: "with such an escort we can go

anywhere" 226

vi : among the barotsi 232

VII: AFRICAN ROYALTY ....... 234

viii : "that delicious rain" 236

IX : THE WEDGE OF THE GOSPEL .... 237

x: rest 241

Chapter X: Mary Slessor Of Cala- Bar 243

i: AN EXTRAORDINARY FACTORY LASSIE . 243

Ii: IN DARK CALABAR 247

in : "blessed with an efik mouth" . . 250

iv : settled among savages .... 253

v: essential justice 258

vi : the church of christ in okoyong 2do

vii : the pioneer of the enyong creek . 262 viii: "the happiest woman in all the

world" 265

MAP OF AFRICA

Showing the missionary stations where these heroes of African missions labored.

Chapter I The Dark Continent Before The Dawn

All Gaul, as Caesar says, is divided into three parts. All Africa may be divided into two. These are the Northern and the Southern halves of the continent, which are found to differ widely both iri history and in religion.

I: Mohammedan Africa *

From the earliest times North Africa played a conspicuous part in the ancient world which centred round the Mediterranean. The names of Egypt and Carthage are a sufficient reminder to us of that. Accordingly it was among the first countries to be evangelised, and in the early Christian centuries the vigorous Churches of North Africa produced men like Augustine and Tertullian, Clement and Origen. Of these ancient churches only a wretched remnant survives in Abyssinia.

In the seventh century the tide of Islam, which flowed north over the churches of Asia, flowed also westward and swept away the Christianity of North Africa. Since then the Mohammedan faith has more than maintained its ground in Africa. It has gradually spread southward, down the east coast to Zanzibar, across the Sudan to the Niger and the Gulf of Guinea, until to-day it dominates half the continent. No doubt it is fitted to give to savage tribes a certain moral and religious uplift, but its cast iron system blocks all farther progress and makes its converts less accessible to the Gospel than before. In Mohammedan Africa Christian missions have made little progress to speak of, and our concern is therefore with pagan Africa which forms the central and southern half of the continent. It must not be forgotten, however, that Islam is still a living and missionary force, and part of the urgency of African evangelisation lies in this, that if the advance of the Cross be delayed the Crescent may take possession of the whole field.

II : Pagan Africa

In the 15 th century bold voyagers had begun to venture down the west coast, and before the close of the century they had rounded the Cape of Good Hope. From this time forward an increasing volume of trade was carried on with Africa, and settlements were planted along the coasts, west, south and east. Nothing, however, was known as yet of the interior, which remained a blank on the map till the 19th century. It was vaguely conceived as a vast and inhospitable desert. Only through the travels of David Livingstone and other explorers were its natural features, its lakes and river systems, made known to the world. It was then discovered that the interior of Africa consists of a vast, undulating plateau, having a climate very different from that of the low, swampy coastland, much of it very fertile, much of it suitable for European colonisation.

Pagan Africa is mainly inhabited by two races of coloured people, the Negroes and the Bantus. Besides these another race may be mentioned, though numerically insignificant, namely the Hottentots and Bushmen. These lived in the neighbourhood of Cape Town and the districts to the north, consequently they figure somewhat prominently in early colonial and missionary history. Probably they are a remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants of Africa who have been driven south by the incoming of stronger tribes. The Bushmen are almost if not quite extinct. They were pigmies with light coloured skin, and in their habits pure nomads. Wondering continually about, trapping game, carrying off cattle, and shooting man and beast with their poisoned arrows, they were regarded by colonists and natives alike, as vermin to be exterminated. Their kinsmen, the Hottentots, were more settled in their habits, and have gradually become intermingled with other tribes. It is undoubtedly from the Bushmen and Hottentot language that certain of the southern Bantu tribes have borrowed those curious little explosives in speech, common known as "Kafir clicks."

Of the two great races, the Negroes inhabit the north of Central Africa from the Sahara to nearly the Equator, and from the Nile valley westward to the Gulf of Guinea and the regions of the Niger. To this race belong such numerous and powerful peoples as the Sudanese, the Hausas, etc. The Bantu race, greatest of all the African peoples, occupies practically the whole of South Africa up to the Equator and five degrees beyond it. It includes among its tribes all the names most familiar in South African history — Kafir, Zulu, Matabele, Basuto, Bechuana. North of the Zambesi it embraces all the peoples from Barotsiland to Uganda. Its three hundred languages and dialects have a close affinity, being all built on what is called a syntax of euphony, according to which the sound of the ruling word pervades the sentence. Roughly it is as if in English, instead of saying, "Men (women, children) go to church," we should say, "Men me-go me-church y Women we-go we-church, Children chi-go chi-church." The Bantu tribes were comparatively late arrivals in Africa and their warlike migrations lasted till well on in the nineteenth century. In colour they are dark brown rather than black, and many have sharp, finely chiselled features. In this connection it may be remarked that the variety of features and of facial expression among Africans generally, both Negro and Bantu, is as great as among Europeans. The typical representation of the negro face is as much a caricature as the portly John Bull or the lanky Uncle Sam.

The religion of pagan Africa takes the form of Fetichism, which is rather a system of vague and gloomy superstitions than a body of definite religious beliefs. The African feels himself to be surrounded by a world of spirits, malignant and terrifying. These spirits may reside in any object, animate or inanimate, they may enter and take possession of a human being. They have practically an unlimited power of working deadly mischief on every hand. The African is like a superstitious man walking along a dark road, who feels that a sheeted ghost may start from every bush, and knows not at what moment he may find himself in the grip of clammy hands. It is not to be wondered at that men in this condition are driven crazy with fear, swept away at times with wild panic, and ready to purchase safety by the most dreadful rites and sacrifices.

Hence arises the power of the witch doctor. He alone has knowledge of the spirit world. He alone can "smell out" the spirits, can appease them or drive them off. His commands, however terrible, must be obeyed. There is no help for it, unless one is prepared to deliver one's self over to still more awful, because invisible, terrors. Doubtless the witch doctors have been more or less sincere in their self-delusions, but they have often abused their dread powers for private ends, of self interest or of revenge. Suspected persons were made to undergo an ordeal by poison, those who survived being accounted innocent, those who died, guilty. This ordeal was applied not merely to single individuals but sometimes to whole villages at once. How terrific the power of the witch doctor was may be gathered from the fact that in 1856 the Kafirs were persuaded to destroy all their cattle, thus reducing themselves to abject starvation, in the hope that on a certain day countless herds would rise from the dead, and usher in an African millenium.

In some parts of Africa cannibalism was practised, though not to any great extent. Infanticide was more widely prevalent, and twins especially, being regarded by some tribes as monstrosities, were cast out to die. Cruel and bloody funeral rites often followed the death of a chief. In order that his spirit might be suitably attended in the underworld, numbers of his slaves were put to death. In some cases his wives were buried alive in the grave with him.

Repulsive as these rites and practices of paganism are, — so repulsive that the worst cannot be told — yet it will invariably be found that they are not the product of sheer, wanton deviltry, but that there is some serious thought, however blinded, underlying them, and some serious intention, however gross, prompting them. It would also be a grave mistake to picture the moral and social life of the African as a condition of unrelieved darkness. There are laws of friendship and hospitality, standards of decency and respectability, which are as strictly observed as among other nations, the wisdom of the fathers, such as it is, — and some of it is not contemptible — is carefully passed on to the children, and there is always to be found some degree of that natural affection and humanity without which social life would be impossible.

Yet when every allowance is made it is a dark and pitiful picture that remains. A false idea of God distorts all human thought and shrouds this mortal life in universal gloom. Instead of a kindly Providence above there is the haunting presence of devils ; instead of a divine, redeeming love there is a devilish anger to be appeased and devilish cruelty to be satisfied with blood; instead of a Heavenly Father to whom His children can look with confidence for help, there are spirit forces embattled round a man, against whose demonic energy he must pit his puny strength, and from whom he can hope to wring a gift only by paying some terrible price. "Paganism," writes Dr. Stewart, "is a terrible fate spiritually, and an oppressive power under which to live. To all the ills of life it adds the constant terrors of a world unseen, whose agents are ever actively interfering with human affairs, and from, which there is no escape. . . . The darkest picture is not overdrawn. The poorness and hardness, narrowness and joylessness of human existence in paganism, in Central Africa at least, must be seen to be understood/' More than ioo millions of the people of Africa live under this blight.

Opponents of missions have at times amused themselves with fanciful pictures of the natural state of the heathen world, a state of sweet innocence and peace, which it were cruelty to disturb. No such state ever existed in Africa. Even before the incoming of the white race Africa was continually the scene of bloody wars and revolutions. The tribal chief was often a cruel, bloodthirsty and licentious tyrant who ate up his people. Neighbouring tribes, instead of living peacefully side by side, were usually at war. From time to time vast convulsions took place, when some barbarous tribe suddenly burst into activity like a volcano, and spread ruin far and wide. The Zulus are a notable instance of this. About the beginning of the nineteenth century they were ruled by a great chief, Chaka, who has not unfitly been called the Napoleon of South Africa. He welded his warriors together by an iron military discipline, and sent out army after army to plunder and devastate. It has been estimated that at least a million human beings were thus wantonly exterminated. Even the flying splinters of Chaka's armies were formidable. Of these the best known are the Matabele who laid waste Southern Rhodesia, the Mantiti who, after threatening Cape Colony, streamed away to the northwest and conquered the tribes of the upper Zambesi, and the Angoni who became the terror of Nyasaland. Such was heathen life in Africa.

Ill : The Hand of Europe

It cannot be denied, however, that contact with Europe brought upon Africa new and vast evils. Of these the greatest and most indefensible was the slave trade. It began shortly after the discovery of America. The miserable Indians were being rapidly exterminated under the tyranny of Spain, and the demand for labour became more pressing. In these circumstances the west coast of Africa became the recruiting ground for the plantations of the New World. The traffic from the first was, confessedly, an outrage on humanity, but so enormously profitable did it prove to be that all religious scruples and moral considerations were swept aside. Portugal and Spain led the way, but soon England outstripped them, and at one time she had nearly 200 vessels engaged exclusively in the trade. One company alone was chartered to supply 30,000 slaves annually to the West Indies. In this way millions of the people of Africa were transported across the Atlantic and millions more were cruelly done to death. The slavetraders harried the west coast from Cape Verde and round the Gulf of Guinea to the Congo. They burned villages and kidnapped the inhabitants, they encouraged intertribal wars and bought the prisoners, they planted trading stations along the coast where guns and gin were exchanged for human beings, they organised slave hunting in the interior. Meantime a similar stream of Africa's lifeblood was pouring out through the gates of the east coast to supply the slave markets of Asia. This continued long after the Trans-Atlantic traffic was suppressed. Indeed the stream, though now greatly diminished, has not yet entirely ceased to flow. In Livingstone's day it was running full flood. Populous regions round Lake Nyasa were being devastated, the forest paths leading to the coast were filled with strings of fettered captives, and along the line of march were strewn the skeletons of those who had fallen. Gradually the conscience of Christendom awoke, and the nineteenth century saw the practical extinction of this inhuman traffic.

The history of European colonisation in Africa runs back over four hundred years. By the sixteenth century the Portuguese were firmly settled on both the east and west coasts. The old grey castle of Mozambique was built by Albuquerque in 1508, and St. Paul de Loanda was founded seventy years later. These tropical regions, however, can never become a white man's country, and the Portuguese settlements have too often shown a sad record of physical and moral degeneration. Yet Portugal has conferred important benefits on Africa by the introduction into the country of various new articles of food, such as oranges and lemons, maize and sweet potatoes, and many other vegetables. As has been said, "Take away from the African's food all that the Portuguese have introduced and he would be left very poorly supplied with the necessaries of life."

The real colonisation of Africa began at Cape Town and proceeded northwards. In the reign of James I, two British admirals, Shillinge and Fitz Herbert, landed at the Cape and, with an amazing imperial and prophetic spirit, took possession in the name of Britain of "the South African coast and continent!" Their action, however, was not followed up, and in 1652 Holland stepped in and held the Cape for a century and a half. At the close of the Napoleonic wars it fell to Britain and the tide of colonisation set steadily in. t The conflicts between Dutch and British interests, which lasted throughout the nineteenth century, promoted expansion northward, and now Dutch and British are happily joined in the United States of South Africa.

It was not till the last quarter of the nineteenth century that the scramble for Africa began. The discoveries of Livingstone and other travellers had revealed the enormous resources of the interior, industrial Europe was in want of raw material for her industries, and of new markets for her finished products. Africa promised to supply both. Therefore Africa was divided up as spoil for the strong. Some of the results of this partition make painful reading, especially the atrocities of the Congo Free State. Free

State, indeed ! — a vast region of tropical Africa placed at the mercy of a licentious king and a greedy group of financiers in Belgium, who glutted themselves with red rubber, — red with the lifeblood of the unhappy wretches by whose labours and tortures it was produced. Fortunately this has been the exception, and it cannot be doubted that the partition of Africa and its control by the nations of Europe has proved on the whole a blessing to the African. It has led to the abolition of many cruel rites, it has restrained intertribal war, it has protected the African to some extent from the aggressions of lawless white men, and given him, often for the first time, the blessings of good government and settled peace.

IV: The Coming of the Missionary

The colonisation of Africa has been accompanied, and in many cases preceded, by Christian missionary effort. Prince Henry of Portugal, who sent out the first bold voyagers to feel their way round the continent, was animated by a noble desire to promote the spread of the Christian faith, and stem the flowing tide of Islam. "Plant the Cross on some new headland. That is what I want," he said. As early as 1 49 1 Dominican missionaries made an imposing start on the Congo, and for a time their labours were rewarded with great outward success. No real impression, however, was made upon the ignorance and barbarism of the people, and that, together with the unworthy lives of the missionaries, brought all to ruin. The Jesuits also laboured with zeal and devotion in all the Portuguese colonies, and penetrated some distance into the interior, but their work, like that of the Dominicans, had no solid basis of Christian education, and when they were banished from the colonies for political reasons, it fell to pieces. Only a few ruined walls remain to witness to the work which the mediaeval Church attempted to do for Africa. It may be that some dim impressions of that work still linger in the African mind. Some years ago a remote heathen tribe on the Zambesi was found to possess a melody which proved to be a pure bit of fifteenth century church music, a melody moreover which had disappeared from the Portuguese churches about the end of the sixteenth century. This may well suggest the interesting question whether some of those African traditions which bear a resemblance to Scripture may not be derived from the same source.

In the eighteenth century Protestant missions entered the field, the Moravians as usual leading the way. They were followed by the London Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Society and others. It was not till the nineteenth century, however, that much progress was made, and the work established on a firm and enduring basis. Then began, that wide-spread and hopeful process of Christian education and training which has done so much for the transformation of Africa and the uplift of its people. Then appeared a succession of missionary heroes, whose courage and, endurance, whose devotion and holy zeal have been an inspiration to the Christian world, and whose names will ever be held in remembrance as the founders of the African Church.

It should never be forgotten, however, that to African eyes these things wear a different aspect. The vast convulsions, the overthrow of the old order of things, the inferior position of the natives under the white man's rule, may well appear to them to be but doubtful blessings. When Mary Slessor was about to sail for Calabar she stood on deck and watched the boat being loaded with casks of spirits for the West Coast trade. "Scores of casks," she exclaimed sorrowfully, "and only one missionary." It was a sharp reminder of what is often forgotten in church circles, that Christian mission work is but one small element in the manifold activities of the white man. The missionary preaches brotherhood, but the colonist refuses to give the right hand of fellowship to his black brother. The pure influence of the Gospel is countered by the corruptions of city life. It need not, therefore, be surprising if many Africans, ignorant of the darkness and barbarism of the past, are impatient under the restraints and disabilities of their present condition, if some are bitterly resentful, and would fiercely deny that the white man's coming has brought the dawn. Yet, surely, the dawn it is, dubious and stormy, doubtless, at its first appearing, and with much darkness mingling with its light, but destined, by the blessing of God and the efforts of His people, to usher in for. Africa a brighter day.

CHAPTER II I : A Scots Gardener

Robert Moffat was born at Ormiston in East Lothian on December 21, 1795. His boyhood, however, was spent at Portsoy on the Moray Firth and at Carronshore near Falkirk. When fourteen years old he was apprenticed as a gardener and for some time lived in a bothy with seven other men, not altogether a bad preparation for the rough life of a pioneer missionary. He grew up, a tall, strong lad, with dark, piercing eyes and a frame capable of more than ordinary endurance. He became a powerful swimmer, and on one occasion rescued a companion from drowning in the Firth of Forth. On finishing his apprenticeship he obtained a situation at High Leigh in Cheshire where he came into contact with the Methodists, to whom he owed his conversion. From childhood he had been under strong Christian influences. Both his parents were deeply religious after the somewhat stern old Scottish type of piety, and his mother had exacted from him, on leaving home, a solemn promise to read his Bible every day. Now, however, they were not without some suspicion of the confident faith and warm religious feeling th^t breathed through their son's letters. His father, while welcoming the news of his conversion "as cold water to a thirsty soul," proceeded at some length to exhort his son "not to be high-minded but to fear," and to this he added the warning, "Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall."

Mainly through the influence of Mr. Roby of Manchester, Moffat's mind now began to turn to the mission field. The seed had indeed been sown much earlier in his childhood's home. Writing to his aged mother after many years of service in Africa Moffat warmly acknowledges this. "Mother, dear mother, your many prayers have been heard. . . . Wherever I am I never forget how much I owe to your prayers. The first dawn of reflection respecting my soul commenced with hearing you pray." His mother's influence seems to have been felt in other ways. "My dear old mother, to keep us out of mischief in the long winter evenings, taught me both to sew and knit, and when I told her I intended being a man, she would reply, 'Lad, ye dinna ken whaur your lot will be cast.' " While the circle round the fire was thus usefully employed their mother was accustomed to read such missionary news as was then to be had, especially the heroic stories of the labours and sufferings of the Moravians in Greenland and among the plantation slaves in the East Indies. Now it became the settled ambition of young Moffat to emulate these pioneers of the Gospel among the heathen.

Mr. Roby, in order to have his young friend nearer him for supervision and help, got work for him in the nursery garden of Mr. Smith of Dukinfield, a warm supporter of missions. "Thus was I led by a way that I knew not," writes Moffat, "for another important end, for. otherwise I might not have had my late dear wife to be my companion and partner in all my hopes and fears for more than half a century in Africa. As it was, Mr. Smith's only daughter possessing a warm missionary heart, we soon became attached to one another, but she was not allowed to join me in Africa till nearly three years after I left." In physique the future Mrs. Moffat presented a contrast to her husband, being under ordinary height, with blue eyes, and a complexion that never lost its delicate girlish bloom. She was never strong and often her mind was oppressed by gloomy forebodings, but so perfectly did she become united with her husband in mutual love and trust, and in all their religious aspirations and labours, that their life story was fittingly recorded by their son in one common biography, The Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat.

After a first application to the London Missionary Society had been refused Moffat was at length, through the influence of his friend Mr. Roby, accepted for service in Africa. On September 30, 18 16, he was solemnly set apart for the work, with eight others, at a meeting in Surrey Chapel, London. Five of the young missionaries were allocated to Africa, four to the South Seas. Among the latter was John Williams, the Apostle of Polynesia, whose devoted life was destined to be crowned by glorious martyrdom on Erromanga. It seemed at one moment as if Moffat and Williams would have more than a passing connection, for it was proposed that both should go to the South Seas. Dr. Waugh, however, a Scots member of the committee, protested that "thae twa lads are ower young to gang thegither." Thus the little turn was given that determined a great career.

II: The Infant Colony

Moffat and his companions reached Cape Town in January, 1817. The Colony was then in its infancy, for only three years had elapsed since British power was established as paramount at the Cape. Of vital importance as the half way house to India, it was first occupied by the Dutch, then seized by the French, and so continued a bone of contention throughout the period of the Napoleonic wars. The Colony now extended northward to the Orange River, but in reality its northern boundary was vague and undefined. Scarcely a sprinkling of white settlers was scattered over the vast area, while roving bands of Boers kept moving farther into the interior, hoping thus to leave British justice behind them, and enjoy unfettered liberty to enslave the native races. Crossing the Orange River they occupied the territory between the Orange and Vaal Rivers, then, having crossed the Vaal, they spread themselves thinly over the country to the north, up to the Limpopo. Thus were laid the foundations of what became the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, whose relations to British rule were to prove a source of ever recurring trouble for nearly a centuy, and whose determined hostility to Christian missions had much to do in determining the work of Moffat and the career of Livingstone.