Our republic; a brief history of the American people

Preface

In the making of our Republic the deeds of pioneers, farmers, inventors, teachers, captains of labor, captains of industry, have been quite as important as the deeds of warriors and statesmen. This history, therefore, is not one of the drum and trumpet kind, nor is it one in which the politician always holds the center of the stage. A large share of attention is given to the every-day life of the people ; to the movement which carried American civilization westward and built up a Union of States; to the growth of our industrial system; to the great inventions which have contributed so largely to our competency in material things. The treatment of topics bearing upon our economic development is unusually full for the reason that the economic factor in the history of a nation, especially in the history of the American nation, is a subject of transcendent importance. There is much in Bagehot's saying: "The selling of figs, the cobbling of shoes, the manufacture of nails — these are the essence of life."

While preparing the book the author received from the officers of the Library of Congress courtesies for which he is deeply indebted.

S. E. Forman.

Washington, D. C.

CONTENTS i

SPAIN IN AMEEICA

PAGE

The Finding of Strange Coasts 3

The Gold Hunters of Spain and the Fishermen of France ... 6

A Clash between Spain and France 8

The Rise of England and the Decline of Spain , . 9

II THE PLANTING OF THE COLONIES

The Coming of the English, French and Dutch 13

The Neighbors of Virginia 22

The Ousting of the Dutch: The Middle Colonies 24

III COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT

The Colonies at the Opening of the Eighteenth Century .... 30

Pushing Back the Frontier Line 38

Over the Mountains 46

Conditions at the End of the Colonial Period 47

IV THE REVOLUTION

V A SURVEY OF THE NATION IN 1783

The Land and the People 93

The Occupations of the People 95

VI A TIME OF GREAT DANGER

State Constitutions and State Governments 109

The Confederation Ill vii viii CONTENTS

VII THE WORK OF THE FATHERS

PAGE

Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces 123

The Ratification of the Constitution 134

VIII SETTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT IN MOTION

The New President 139

The New Organization . • 140

Revenues and Expenditures 142

Amendments: North Carolina and Rhode Island 144

Hamilton's Financial Measures 145

Federalists and Republicans 149

IX TROUBLE ABROAD AND AT HOME

The French Revolution 153

War or Neutrality? 155

The Whisky Rebellion 159

"Adams and Liberty" 175

Repressive War Measures 178

The Federalist Party on a Downward Course 179

X

Jefferson 's Inauguration 183

Organization and Measures 187

The Tripolitan War 190

The Great Expansion 191

The Federalists in Distress 195

XI

Depredations upon American Commerce 199

The Impressment of Seamen 201

Jefferson's Economic War 202

Jefferson 's Retirement 205

Drifting Towards War 207

XII TWENTY YEARS OF WONDROUS GROWTH (1800-20)

The Land Policy of the National Government 218

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

Emigration and Immigration 222

Along the Ohio River: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois 223

Around the Gulf of Mexico: Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama,

Across the Mississippi 229

The Significance of the Frontier 232

XIII AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING

Peace and Isolation 235

The Growth of American Nationality 237

The Acquisition of Florida 247

Internal Improvements : The Tariff 254

The End of Caucus Rule 256

XIV

Jackson the Man 261

Jackson and the Offices 268

Jackson and the Bank 284

The Administration of Martin Van Buren 288

XV

Highways, Canals and Railroads 295

Industrial and Commercial Progress 305

Education and Literature 308

Social Betterment 312

XVI

"MANIFEST DESTINY"

Tyler and the Whigs 321

The Texan Question 324

The Oregon Question 328

The Acquisition of California and New Mexico 331

XVII

Great Inventions 340

Cheap Lands and Immigration 345 x CONTENTS

PAGE

An Issue Avoided 358

XVIII

ASPECTS OF SLAVEEY

The Slaveholders; the Poor Whites 363

Free Negroes 365

The Legal Status of the Slave 367

The Morals of Slavery 374

The Economic and Business Aspects of Slavery 376

XIX

SLAVEEY AN OVERSHADOWING ISSUE

"Five Bleeding Wounds" 378

The Compromise of 1850 381

Resistance and Acquiescence 385

XX

The Beginning of the Republican Party 394

"Bleeding Kansas" 395

The Dred Scott Decision 400

The Lecompton Constitution 402

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 403

A Raid and a Book 407

XXI

The Trunk Lines; the Merchant Marine 413

The Westward Movement in the Fifties 416

Commercial and Industrial Growth 419

The Growth of Cities 421

Every-Day Life 423

XXII

THE BEGINNING OF A GREAT CONFLICT

The First Clashes 448

CONTENTS xi

XXIII THE CIVIL WAB

PAGE

The Assembling of the Hosts 456

The War in the West in 1862 . 459

XXIV

WAE TIMES NORTH AND SOUTH

Keeping the Ranks Filled 483

XXV

Lincoln's Policy of Reconstruction 506

Johnson 's Efforts at Reconstruction 508

The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson 521

Foreign Affairs in Reconstruction Times 524

Reconstruction Politics 526

XXVI

The Prostrate South and the Prosperous North 534

Prosperity and Reverses 542

New Problems 545

XXVII

International Matters 550

Setting the Financial House in Order 553

XXVIII

Hayes; Garfield; Arthur 568

The Democrats Return to Power 584 xii CONTENTS

XXIX THE BEGINNING OF A NEW INDUSTRIAL ORDER

PAGE

Cleveland at the Helm 588

The Regulation of the Railroads 603

Industrial Unrest 606

XXX

The Second Harrison 614

" A Spirited Foreign Policy " 617

The Presidential Election of 1892 636

XXXI A TIME OF GREAT FERMENT : 1893-97

The World's Columbian Exposition 642

The Panic of 1893; Popular Unrest 648

Hawaii; Venezuela 653

The Wilson Tariff 658

1896 662

XXXII TAKING A HAND IN OLD-WORLD AFFAIRS

The Dingley Bill 674

Expansion and the Open Door 690

The Gold-Standard Act 693

XXXIII THE ROOSEVELT ADMINISTRATION

Roosevelt and the Trusts 701

Roosevelt and the Coal Strike 706

Tin: Panama Canal; Foreign Affairs 708

Roosevelt's "Second Election" 714

Roosevelt's "Second Term" 717

XXXIV A PROGRESSIVE ERA

Progress in Social Matters 729

Tiik Renascence of Democracy 734

CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

Armageddon • . . 749

XXXV

THE GEEAT WAE

XXXVI

AFTEE THE WAE

Making a Peace 798

Eeconstruction 800

The Harding Administration 806

Eeading List 811

The Constitution of the United States 814

ILLUSTRATIONS

George Washington Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

The Puritan 16

William Penn 33

La Salle Taking Possession of Louisiana 49

Samuel Adams 56

A Cartoon of 1774: Bostonians Pay the Excise Man or Tarring and

Feathering 64

Benjamin Franklin 80

America's First National Capitol 129

Alexander Hamilton 144

Thomas Jefferson 184

Moving Out West 225

John Marshall 240

Andrew Jackson 264

The Marriage of the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 296

A Cartoon of 1849: The Independent Gold Hunter on the Way to California 353

The Plantation Preacher 368

Daniel Webster 380

John C. Calhoun 380

Henry Clay 380

A Cartoon of 1860: The National Game. Three "Outs" and One "Eun'' 408

The Development of Bailway Transportation 417

Abraham Lincoln 432

Bobert E. Lee 464

Ulysses S. Grant 481

Woman's Work in the Civil War 496

East and West United 540

Caricaturing the Scene on the New York Stock Exchange on Black Friday 552

Thomas A. Edison 577

A New York Skyscraper Scene 592

A Cartoon of 1888: Free Trade and Protection ........ 612

Grover Cleveland 648

The Panama Canal 708

Theodore Roosevelt 717

Woodrow Wilson 760

xv

MAPS

PAQB

First Voyage of Columbus 4

Explorations of Ponee cle Leon, De Soto, and Coronado 7

Jamestown and Vicinity 14

Settlements Around Massachusetts Bay 18

Connecticut and Rhode Island 20

Along the Carolina Coast 23

Delaware River and Delaware Bay 25

The Frontier Line in 1700 31

Spottswood's Route: The First Road to the West 39

The Frontier Line in 1740 42

Scene of the French and Indian War 44

Early Kentucky and Tennessee 47

Boston and Vicinity 70

Washington's Movements in 1776 79

Washington's Movements in 1777 82

Burgoyne 's Invasion of New York and Scene of Border Warfare ... 84

The Revolutionary War as Fought in the South 89

Early Ohio 163

Boundaries Established by the Treaty of Greenville 165

The United States After the Louisiana Purchase 194

Scene of the War of 1812 212

Routes to the West During the Turnpike Era (1800-1825) .... 220

Along the Ohio River: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois 224

Around the Gulf of Mexico 228

The Oregon Country 230

The Result of the Missouri Compromise 245

The National Road 297

Krie Canal, Pennsylvania Canal, and Baltimore and Ohio Railway . . 300

Navigable Rivers about 1820 303

xvi

MAPS xvii

PAGE

Map of the War with Mexico :.: ,. w m ....... 335

The Westward Extension 338

Along the Upper Mississippi and Around the Great Lakes .... 348

The Santa Fe and Oregon Trails to the Pacific Coast 354

Eesults upon Slavery of the Compromise of 1850 384

Scene of the Struggle in Kansas 397

Transportation between the East and West after the Building of the

Trunk Lines 414

Center of Population 419

Charleston Harbor 445

The War in the West 461

The War in the East 472

The Presidential Election of 1896 — the Solid States Gave Democratic

Pluralities 670

The Philippines 681

Map Showing the Location of the Irrigation Projects of the United

States Government 720

Map Showing Where the Americans Fought 791

The Yearly Flow of the Immigration Tide since 1820 800

OUR REPUBLIC

OUR REPUBLIC

i

AT the opening of the fifteenth century geographical knowledge was confined chiefly to Europe, southern and middle Asia, and northern Africa. The fifteenth century, however, was not far advanced when a remarkable impulse to exploration began to show itself. Bold snirits sailed farther and farther out upon unknown seas and penetrated deeper and deeper into unknown lands, with the result that by the end of the century the boundaries of geographical knowledge had been extended so far as to include all the continents of the earth.

The Finding op Strange Coasts

The impulse which prompted Europeans in the later years of a,^^ h u e rks the fifteenth century to go out upon unknown waters and explore £™t|; 8 strange lands was born of commercial necessity. About 1450 the trade which Venice, Genoa, and other Mediterranean cities were carrying on with the Orient began to suffer because of the interference of the Ottoman Turks, who, having begun to overrun Asia Minor in the fourteenth century, did not halt in their career of conquest until they had spread their power over all the countries bordering upon the Black Sea and the eastern edge of the Mediterranean. In 1453 they captured Constantinople and, pushing their conquests southward, they rapidly brought all Syria and Egypt under their sway. Wherever the Turks planted their power they erected barriers to commerce. They stood in the overland routes that led from the Mediterranean to the Orient and would not allow the merchants to pass. They imposed such heavy tolls upon goods moving upon the Nile and the Red Sea as to render trade by this route unprofitable. By the opening of the sixteenth century

CHAP.

I they had made it almost impossible for trade to move by the old routes between Europe and the Far East.

No sooner, however, were the old routes to the Orient blocked than an eager search for new routes began. This was to be expected, for the movements of trade are well-nigh irresistible. If commerce cannot surmount barriers it will go around them. In the race to reach the Orient by a new route Portugal took the lead. By 1471 Portuguese sailors had followed the African coast beyond the equator, and by 1487 Bartholomeu Dias had pushed as far south as the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497 Vasco da Gama sailed for India

*5K2K*~\Sr Co/um£o

The First Voyage of Columbus in the path marked out by Dias, and the next year entered the harbor of Calicut. He returned to Lisbon bringing with him a cargo of nutmegs, cloves, pepper, rubies, emeralds, silks, and satins. Thus Portugal found a new route to the Indies and trade between Europe and the Orient was reestablished.

While the Portuguese sailors were creeping down the African coast, Christopher Columbus was planning to reach India by sailing directly westward across the Atlantic. In August, 1492, under the auspices of Spain, he sailed westward from Palos, and on October 12 he landed on a little island (possibly San Salvador) of the Bahama group. After skirting the coast of Cuba and landing at Haiti, he returned to Spain (March, 1493) with the startling announcement that he had reached the coast of India by a westward route. This was glorious news for Spain, for it now seemed that

THE FINDING OF STRANGE COASTS 5

the trade of the Orient, the great prize for which the commercial chap.

world was contending, would be carried in Spanish bottoms and

landed at Spanish ports, and that the enormous profits of this trade would go into the coffers of Spanish merchants.

Columbus followed up his first voyage with three others. On his third voyage (begun in 1498) he reached the mainland of South America. On his last voyage he skirted the coast of Central America. These strange coasts he was sure belonged to Asia. That they were portions of a continent the existence of which was unknown to Europeans, or that he had discovered a New World, seems never to have occurred to the great discoverer himself or to any of his contemporaries.

Englishmen were not slow in finding their way to the strange JohnCabot coasts which were discovered by Columbus and which were thought to be the gateway to the riches of India. In May, 1497, John Cabot under the auspices of the English king Henry VII, set sail from Bristol and in June "discovered that land which no man before that time had attempted. ' ' * The place of Cabot 's landing cannot be precisely located, but it was on the coast of North America somewhere between southern Labrador and Halifax. Cabot thought he had landed on the coast of China, for like Columbus he was searching for the eastern coast of Asia, and like Columbus he thought he had found the object of his quest. Cabot claimed the "new-found-land" for England, and this claim became the foundation-stone of the English power in the New World.

That Cabot was the first of the great navigators to reach the Americus

Vespucius

American mainland is a matter of dispute. Some historians contend that Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence, Italy, sailed from Cadiz in May, 1497, and, having crossed the Atlantic, landed on the coast of Honduras a few days before it had been reached by Colum-

1 For a long time it was believed that the North American coast was discovered centuries before this voyage of Cabot. According to the sagas, or Scandinavian legends, a sea-rover named Leif Ericson sailed from Iceland about the year 1000, and, steering in a southwesterly direction, explored the American coast as far south as New England. Leif is said to have landed somewhere on the coast of what is now Massachusetts or Rhode Island, where he made a settlement called Vinland, but historians are unable to decide where this Vinland really was. Indeed, many historians no longer believe the story of Leif Ericson and the settlement of Vinland at all, for they doubt the truth of the sagas upon which the story rests. Even if the voyage of Leif was actually made, it is likely that all memory of it had faded from men's minds by the time of Columbus.

bus. Whether this contention is true or not, it is certain that Vespucius was among the first who made voyages to the newly found world. It is also certain that it was from him that the New World took its name. The naming of America was accomplished in a roundabout way and without the knowledge of Vespucius himself. In 1504 Vespucius wrote an account of his voyage to the newly found world, and his narrative fell into the hands of Martin Waldseemuller, a professor of geography in the College of St. Die in Lorraine. In 1507 Waldseemuller published a geography in which he suggested that the New World be given the name America. The suggestion of the geographer was followed. Waldseemuller intended that only Brazil — the region described by Vespucius in his narrative — should be called America, but the name spread northward and southward and in time the whole western continent came to be called. America. Thus it was an Italian that discovered the Western world, an Italian that first reached its mainland, and an Italian that gave it its name.

The interference of the Turks with the trade of the Orient influenced profoundly the course of human history. In the first place, it caused commerce to flow in new channels and directed it to new centers. The voyage of da Gama marked the beginning of a movement that was to take the best trade of the world from the cities of the Mediterranean and give it to the cities of northern and western Europe. After that voyage Venice and Genoa declined, while Lisbon and Antwerp and London prospered as never before. In the second place, the conduct of the Turks caused navigators of Europe to go out and find strange coasts in all quarters of the globe. Before the close of the fifteenth century Portuguese captains sailing southward had explored the west coast of Africa throughout its entire length, while Columbus and Cabot had explored the eastern coast of the Western continent from the frozen shores of Labridor to the region of the Orinoco River.

The Gold Hunters op Spain and the Fishermen op France

There was no rush of emigrants to the region discovered by Columbus and Cabot. There was no overcrowding in Europe as yet, and there was no good reason why the comforts of civilized life should be exchanged for a wretched existence in a far-off desolate land. Nevertheless, Europeans in small numbers began to go out

GOLD HUNTERS OF SPAIN— FISHERMEN OF FRANCE 7 to the New World almost as soon as it was discovered. The first to go were Spanish adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus. Some of these promptly took up the hard work of colonization. Haiti was settled first and as early as 1496 Santo Domingo, the first town inhabited by white men in the New World, was founded. The settlement of Porto Rico was also quickly begun, and by 1510 the island had a regularly organized colonial government. In 1511 the colonization of Cuba began, and by 1519 the foundations of

CHAP.

i

Explorations of Ponce de Leon, De Soto, and Coronado

Havana were laid. Thus an almost immediate result of the voyages of Columbus was the firm establishment of the Spanish power in the West Indies.

But the boldest of the early Spanish adventurers went to the Spanish New World not to found colonies but to search for gold. Finding Huntera no gold along the coast, the soldiers of fortune left their ships and struck out into the wilderness. It was while searching for gold that Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513) ; that Ponce de Leon came upon Florida (1513) ; that De Soto found himself upon the banks of the Mississippi River (1541) ; that Coronado was led to traverse the wilds of what is now New Mexico and Kansas. These adventurers found little gold, but they greatly enriched geographical knowledge and widely extended the Spanish power in the New

"World. By virtue of their explorations Spain laid claim to a large part of North America. These gold hunters, however, found that riches lay at the south. Here they were successful beyond the dreams of avarice. In 1519 Cortes conquered Mexico and about ten years later Pizarro overran Peru. These men became masters of untold wealth and their conquests made Spain not only the richest nation in the world but also the mistress of Mexico, Central, America, the greater part of South America, and the greater part of North America. Indeed, by the middle of the sixteenth century Spain was the virtual possessor of every part of the Western World from Patagonia to Labrador excepting only Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. 1

While Spaniards were exploiting the southern part of America for its gold, Frenchmen were exploiting the northern part for its fish. As early as. 1504 fishermen began to go out from the ports of Dieppe and St. Malo to Newfoundland, and by 1522 there had been built along the coast of that island as many as forty or fifty huts for the accommodation of French fishermen. These rude fishermen's huts were perhaps the first structures erected by white men in North America.

A Clash Between Spain and France

France soon began to think of doing something more in America than merely catching fish. In 1534, Francis I, king of France, denying the validity of the claims of Spain to North America, sent out Jacques Cartier to make explorations in the region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Cartier found the country full of all sorts of goodly trees, oaks, elms, cedars, firs, and willows. "The forests," he said, "were full of fur-bearing animals; hares, martens, foxes, beavers, otters; and the rivers were the plentifullcst of fish that any man ever hath seen or heard of. ' ' In 1540 Cartier attempted to establish a French colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence, but disease soon swept away most of the colonists and the colony was broken up.

1 In 1494, in accordance with the wishes of Pope Alexander VI, the king of Spain and the king of Portugal made a treaty which provided that a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should be a "line of demarcation" and that all heathen lands west of this line should belong to Spain ; Brazil, therefore, was claimed by Portugal on the ground that it was east of the line of demarcation.

RISE OF ENGLAND AND THE DECLINE OF SPAIN 9

About thirty years after the voyages of Cartier French Protes- chap.

tants — Huguenots, they were called — made a settlement at the

mouth of the St. John's River in Florida, calling it Fort Carolina. Huluenot In the mind of the Spanish monarch there were several good reasons Color, y why the Huguenot colony should be destroyed. In the first place, the colonists were trespassing upon land which Spain claimed as her own. In the second place, the Huguenots were enemies of the Catholic religion, the faith to which the Spanish king belonged and of which he was the most distinguished champion. Then, too, the Spaniards regarded the settlement at Fort Carolina as a nest of pirates. For about this time French cruisers were in the habit of scouring the seas and capturing Spanish vessels. In 1555 French bucaneers plundered Havana, burned the town, and put many of its inhabitants to death. The Spanish monarch, accordingly, could proceed against the trespassing Huguenots with right good will. He sent a great force of ships and men against the French settlement, and Fort Carolina was wiped from the face of the earth.

Thus France and Spain were the first nations to quarrel about the possession of territory in the New World and in the clash which followed Spain came out as the victor. After the destruction of Fort Carolina the French made no further attempts to gain a foothold on the southern part of the Atlantic seaboard. Spain was left, for the time, in undisputed possession of the coast from Florida to Labrador.

The Rise of England and the Decline of Spain

But another nation was gathering strength and power to contend The with Spain and the rest of the world for the mastery of the Navy American coast. This rising nation was England. At the opening of the sixteenth century England was a weak and backward country. Her population was small, her commerce and industries were unimportant, and she was weak on the seas. But before the century was well advanced England as a nation was growing stronger. Her industries were increasing, her commerce was expanding, her middle class was growing rapidly in wealth and numbers. Above all, she was adding strength to her navy, building her ships larger, arming them with more powerful guns, and manning them with more skilful crews. By the middle of the century she had trained a race of bold and hardy seamen to whom "no land was uninhabitable and no sea unnavigable. ' '

Hawkins

and

Drake

No sooner had England built up her navy than her seamen began to push out for trade and for plunder. In 1562 John Hawkins sailed from the Guinea coast to the West Indies with a cargo of negroes who had been captured in the wilds of Africa. The negroes were sold as slaves to Spanish settlers in Haiti. This voyage of Hawkins led to a clash with Spain and marked the beginning of one of the most momentous conflicts in the history of the world. Spain, desiring all the trade of the West Indies for herself, forbade outsiders to trade in the islands on the pain of death. England answered this prohibition by letting loose in the West Indies a swarm of ruthless bucaneers who plundered Spanish coasts and robbed Spanish vessels wherever they could find them. The leader of these sea-dogs was Francis Drake. This greatest of all English seamen hated Spain with his whole heart and devoted his whole life to inflicting injury upon the Spanish nation. In the pursuit of his vengeance Drake was relentless, being held back neither by twinges of conscience nor by fear nor by bodily pain. By 1580 this terrible corsair and his companions had rained upon Spain so man}' heavy blows that the Spanish ambassador to the English court protested and threatened that if the outrages of English freebooters did not cease "matters would come to the cannon."

And soon matters did come to the cannon. In 1588 the Spanish king, Philip II, began to collect a large army and prepare an immense fleet for the invasion of England and its complete subjugation. Elizabeth and her statesmen made every effort for defense and when Philip's great fleet — the Invincible Armada — sailed into the English Channel it met the full strength of the English navy. The English felt they were fighting for their honor, their country, and their firesides and they went at the Spanish in a life-and-death struggle. The battle ended in a tremendous victory for the English. Many of the Spanish ships were sunk and many that escaped were soon destroyed by a terrible storm. This battle was a decisive event, not only in the life of the English nation, but in the history of the world as well. The defeat of the Armada led rapidly to the decline of Spain and gave England what she never before had had — a place among the leading nations of the world.

[This matter is indexed. It does not include dates given or subjects treated in the main body of the text.]

1460 Henry the Navigator explores the African coast. 1485 Caxton sets up a printing-press in England. Henry VII becomes king of England.

1492 Conquest of Granada by Spain and disappearance of the Moorish power.

1493 Spanish colony at Hispaniola founded.

1497-1503 Voyages of Americus Vespucius to South America.

1500 Cabral reaches the coast of Brazil.

Cortereal, a Portuguese navigator, explores Newfoundland.

1502 Fourth voyage of Columbus.

150G Columbus dies at Valladolid.

1509 Henry VIII becomes king of England.

1516 "Utopia," by Sir Thomas More, is published.

1519-22 Magellan's voyage. (Magellan, a Portuguese captain in the service of Spain, starting from St. Lucar in Spain in 1519, sailed along the eastern coast of South America, passed through the strait which bears his name, and crossed the Pacific, making his way to the Philippine Islands, where he was killed by the natives. His companions continued the voyage around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, thus completing in .1522 the first circumnavigation of the world. )

1524 Verrazano explores the coast of North America.

1528 Narvaez explores the Gulf region.

1533 Pizarro completes conquest of Peru.

Ignatius Loyola founds the Jesuit order.

1534 England throws off the papal authority.

1535 Jacques Cartier ascends the St. Lawrence River.

Henry VIII assumes the title of supreme head of the church. 1542 Henry VIII assumes the title of king of Ireland. 1547 Edward VI becomes king of England. 1553 Mary becomes queen of England.

1558 Elizabeth becomes queen of England.

1559 Protestantism established in England by Act of Uniformity and

Supremacy. 1562 Huguenot wars begin.

1564 Laudonniere founds a colony in Florida.

1565 Menendez founds St. Augustine.

1576 Frobisher begins search for a Northwest passage.

1577-79 Drake's voyage. (In 1577 Francis Drake with five small vessels embarked from England on a buccaneering expedition to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Having obtained immense treasure by plunder on the coasts of Chili and Peru he sailed north as far as California where he landed and took possession of the country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, calling it New Albion. From California he steered across the Pacific to the Moluccas and returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope in 1579. This was the first time the globe was circumnavigated by an Englishman.)

1580 Tobacco first brought to England.

1582 Santa F6 is founded.

1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempts to colonize Newfoundland. 1585 Raleigh makes an unsuccessful settlement on Roanoke Island.

1587 Virginia Dare, the first white child of English parents, is born in

America. 159G Cadiz attacked and the Spanish fleet destroyed by the English.

The Renaissance : Adams, pp. 364-391 ; also Green, pp. 302-310.

Medieval trade routes : Cheyney, pp. 22-26.

Henry the Navigator : Cheyney, pp. 60-78.

The Reformation : Adams, G. B., pp. 416-442.