The story of the North Star State

Preface

Minnesota is a State of varied natural resources. Within the boundaries of the State are the oldest lands in the world, the oldest known geologic formations, — the ancient granites, and the youngest formations, — the glacial deposits.

The purpose of this book has been to set forth in simple language the scientific story of this great land. The story ought to be both interesting and valuable, for upon a proper understanding of the facts depends the best development of the natural resources of the State. Such a story might be dry and tedious. It may be as interesting as a romance. It depends upon hoAv the story is told. To be scientific a treatise does not have to be hard. Scientific facts do not necessarily need to be expressed in technical language. Many-syllabled words sometimes conceal ignorance. The most profound facts of science may be stated in simple and readable language.

Whatever may be said of the style and language of this book the subject should be interesting because it is vitally important. The fer- .tility of the soil is not a matter of chance but a product or result of activities that have been long going on. The best method of approach to an understanding of the soil is through a study of the way by which the soils were formed. The best use of the soil is learned by knowing the nature of the soil. The present volume treats of events that have occurred by which these results have come about. It is an attempt to explain the history of the soils, the rivers and lakes, the forests and the mines. It is the story of the land.

"The Story of the North Star State" is intended for the great reading public of Minnesota. The natural resources of soil, of rivers and lakes, of scenic beauty, of mines, of rocks, and of forests ought to be of interest to every citizen.

The book is intended for use as a text-book in schools. The rising generation ought to know the State and its resources. The author has had many years' experience in educational work. It is his opinion, based upon observation and experience, that in the curricula of our schools not enough time is devoted to the study of our own State and its resources. It is hoped that the present volume will supply in some measure the need for a text that deals with home geography.

Few books of the character of the present volume have, within the author's knowledge, been written about any State. This book has not been modeled after the work of any other, but has been written to supply what the author regards as a definite need.

Several years ago the author published "The Story of the Prairies," a popular treatise on the prairie State of North Dakota. The author had then but recently left the University w^iere as a student he had occasion to consult many dusty volumes, and to read many pages of tedious technical matter. "The Story of the Prairies" was v^^ritten in protest against the unnecessarily hard, dry, and technical treatment of the subjects studied. If a writer knew what he wanted to say why could he not say it in common simple language such as could be readily understood by one of average intelligence "?

The reception that has been accorded that book has far exceeded the author's expectations. It is now in the ninth edition. It is widely used in the schools of North Dakota and is in the libraries of most of the large cities of the country. It has found readers in nearly every State in the Union, in Canada, and many European countries. The general plan of "The Story of the Prairies" has been followed in the present volume.

In the final chapters, under the title "Geology from a Car Window," is given a traveler's view of what has been described in the foregoing pages. It has been attempted to point out what any observer can .see as he goes; to aid the leader who travels to know what he sees at the time he is looking at it. It is intended that these chapters shall serve as a kind of laboratory jzuide illustrating and pointing out the features of the landscape that have been described.

There are those who travel yet do not see what they look at. There are those who look out from a car window and see only grass. A hill is taken for granted as a hill; a river as a i iver. Often it is not realized that there is a reason for every hill, and a history of every river, that the stones that lie in the field are not there by accident but are the result of definite processes.

To the pupils in our schools it is hoped that "Geology from a Car Window" will be of assistance in the stndy of local home geography. The chaiacter of the landscape about every railroad station in the State is described. Thus local examples of the geologic features that have been described in the preceding chapters are si)ecifically pointed ont. It is thought that the descriptions in these chapters will be of value to the general I'eader foi- leference as well as an aid to observation in traveling, and will be of local interest in the study of home geography in the schools.

In tile prcpai-ation of several (dia|)ters the authoi* has had most valuable assistance from Dr. Frederick W. Sardeson, geologist to the Minnesota State Securities Commission. l)i*. Sardeson has had wide experience in the field on Federal and State surveys, and his intimate knowledge of the gla^'ial geolo«jy of the State has made it possible to present a more

PREFACE 5

complete story than could otherwise have been done. Unpublished notes and records as well as his published papers have been freely drawn upon. The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Sardeson's contribution to these chapters, and to express his appreciation of the cooperation extended.

The author wishes to express appreciation to Dr. F. J. Ahvay, head of the Division of Soils, University of Minnesota, for reading in manuscript the chapter on the Soils of Minnesota, and for suggestions, advantage of which was taken in revising the manuscript, and also to Mr. Carlos Avery, State Game and Fish Commissioner, for very kindly reading and making suggestions on the chapter Out Doors in Minnesota, and for the loan from his department of cuts used in illustrating this chapter.

The author's thanks are extended: to Mr. W. T. Cox, State Forester, for permission to go through the files of photographs in his office and to select those desired, a number of which appear in the text ; to Professor W. H. Emmons, director of the Minnesota Geological Survey, for the loan of cuts which have been used ; to the director of the U. S. Geological Survey for cuts from U. S. Publications and for photographs very kindly supplied from negatives in the files of the survey at Washington.

In the preparation of the chapter on The Dalles of the St. Croix use has been made of Professor C. P. Berkey's Handbook, and acknowledgment is made of material drawn from this source.

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness for the use made of Bulletins 12, 13, and 14 of the Minnesota Geological Survey, and the accompanying maps, by Leverett and Sardeson. The text and maps of the bulletins have been freely drawn upon in the discussion of soils ; and the maps have been constantly used in checking the author's observations in travels over the State and as a direct source of information in preparation of the chapters "Geology from a Car Window."

Contents

Page CHAPTER I — The Landscape. - - - - - - - - 15

Introductory; Meaning of the Landscape; The Types of Hills; Hills of Erosion; Hills of Glacial Deposit; Hills of Glacial Erosion; Hills of Wind Blown Sand; Loess Hills; Volcanic Hills and Hills of Uplift; Plains; Prairies; Drainage.

CHAPTER II — How a River Begins. - - - - - - _ 30

Hills and Valleys; Beginnings of a Landscape. CHAPTER III — The Work of Land Ice. - - - - - - 36

Conditrons under which Glaciers Form; How Ice Behaves under Great Pressure; An Illustration; The Great Ice Invasion of North America; Materials Carried in the Ice; Action of Ice on Surfaces Passed over; Moraines; Till Plains; Outwash Plains,

CHAPTER XIII— Glacial Lake Agassiz. - - - - - - 128

The Beginnings of the Lake; Relation of Fergus Falls Moraine to the Lake; Increase in Size of the Lake; Depth of Water in the Lake; The Southern and Eastern Outlets; Earth Materials Deposited in the Lake; Beach Ridges or Shore Lines of the Ancient Lake.

CHAPTER XIX — The Falls of St. Anthony. - - - - - 17 3

A New Landscape; Beginning of the Falls; Recession and Disappearance of the First Fall; Beginning of the Falls of St. Anthony; An Abandoned Fall below Minnehaha Creek; A Second Abandoned Fall at Minnehaha; Progress of the Falls above Minnehaha; Nicollet Island Rapids; Cause of Recession of the Falls; Rate of Recession; Minnehaha Falls.

CHAPTER XX— Lake Duluth. -•- - - - - - -183

How the Lake Came to be; History of the Lake Shown in Land Forms; Lake Nemadji; Changes of Lake Level and Crustal Uplift; Lake Duluth Bottom; The Struggle between River and Lake; Minnesota Point.

CHAPTER XXI— Glacial Lakes Aitkin and Upham. - - - - 190

Ancient Lake Bottom in Aitkin County; Lake Aitkin Named; Islands and Beaches; Lake Upham Named for Noted Geologist.

CHAPTER XXII — The Lakes and Rivers of Freeborn County. - - 195

A Detail of Glacial History; First Event: Advance of the Ice; Second Event: Retreat and Re-advance of the Ice; Third Event: Formation of Moraine and Lakes; Fourth Event: Re-advance of Ice Front; Fifth Event: Formation of Moraines and Ponding of Waters; Sixth Event: Moraine Blocks Drainage; Seventh Event: Old Valley Filled by Outwash; Eighth Event: High Outwash Plain Formed; Lakes in Partially Filled Valleys.

CHAPTER XXVI — The Soils of Minnesota. - - • - - - 219

The Greatest Natural Resource; Definition of Soil; Character of Minnesota Soils; General Types of Glacial Soils; Soil Classification; The Term "Clay" as Applied to Soils; The Soils of the "Driftless Area"; Loess Soils of Southeastern Minnesota; Loess Soils of Southwestern Minnesota; Soils of the Old Gray Drift; Soils of the Old Red Drift; Soils of the Young Red Drift; Soils of the Red Drift Overlaid by Gray Drift; Red Drift Soils of East Central Minnesota; Loam Soils of Moraines in Southeastern Minnesota; Soils of Moraines in Southwestern Minnesota; Soils of the Lake Park Region; South Central Minnesota; Gray and Red Drift Soils of Central Minnesota; The Lake Agassiz Plain; Lacustrine Soils Formed from Deep Water Sediments; Sandy Soils of the Shallow Waters; Soils from Lake-Washed Till; Soils of the Swamp Area; Soils of North Central Minnesota; O^^erridden Moraines of Itasca County and the Iron Ranges; Two Ancient Lake Bottoms; The Northeastern Counties; The Lake Superior Clay.

CHAPTER XXXIII — Geology From A Car Window. - - - - 417

The Soo Line (St. Paul, Minneapolis & S. S. Marie Railv/ay.) CHAPTER XXXIV — Geology From A Car Window: - - - - 440

The Iron Range Lines.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page.

Cypripedium — The Moccasin Flower, State Flower of Minnesota

Frontispiece -Altitude Map of Minnesota, - - - - - - - -14

-Valley of the Mississippi at Minnesota City, ----- 17

-A Fragment of Topography in the Lake Park Region, - - - 18

-Second Growth Norway Pine on Stony Morainic Ridge, Cass County, 20 -Shores and Islands of Vermilion Lake, - - - - - -22

-A fertile Valley north of Vermilion Lake at Half-way House, - 26

-Garden Plot of Anthony Gasco on Lake Harriet, Lake County, - 2 8

-Diagram Showing How a Valley Begins at Its Own Mouth, - 32

-Showing Formation of Moraine and Stratification of the Ice, - 36

-Showing Moraine Being Crowded Upon by the Moving Ice, - 38

-Diagram Showing Flowage of Pitch, ------ 39

-A Striated and Polished Boulder, ------- 41

-Hard Rock Surface Smoothed and Polished by Ice, Northern St.

-Striated, and Polished Quartzite Rock Surface, .Big Sioux Valley,

S. D. West of Rock County, -------- 43

-Granite Pebble, Showing Ice Planing and Strias, - - - - 44

-Islands in Rainy Lake, Remnants of Hills Smooth and Polished

-Gray Drift Moraine, North of St. Paul, ------ 45

-A Section in a Sandy Morainic Hill, ------- 47

-Boulder Strewn Till-plain, Carlton County, ----- 48

-Surface of Platteville Limestone Smoothed and Grooved by the

Kansan Ice Sheet. ---------- 49

-Outwa-^^h Plain of Gray Drift West of White Bear, - - - - 50

-Esker Between Lakes in Eastern Lake County, - - - - 51

-Map Showing Drift Deposits, Loess, and Glacial Lakes in Minnesota, 5 2 -Map of Minnesota Showing Extent of Glacial Ice Sheets, Direction

of Ice Movements, and Shores of Glacial Lakes, By Frank Lev-

-Farm on Stony Patrician Drift at Tower, ------ 57

-Red Drift Moraine Veneered with Gray Drift, North of St. Paul, 58

-Flax Field on Red River Clay Plain, ------- 60

-Superior (Labradorian) Red Drift over Patrician Red Drift near

-Clayey Keewatin Drift over Stony Patrician Drift at Biwabik, - L

-Old Red Drift Moraine near Hampton, ------ 62

-A Glacier and Terminal Moraines, ------- 64

-Near View of Glacier Front, Showing Ice Cave, - - - - 6 5

-Terminal Moraine, Front of Glacier, and Glacier in Distance, - 66

-Terminal Moraine and Ice Front Crowding Upon It, - - - - 68

-Terminal Moraine Being Washed Away by Glacial Stream, - - 6 8

-Map of Europe Showing Glaciated Area, ------ 69

-Angular Outlines. Not Passed Over by Ice Sheet. West Coast of

-Smooth Outlines Sho-Cving Effects of Moving Ice. West Coast of

-A Joint Moraine Formed by the Meeting of Two Glaciers, - - 7 2

-A Fragm'^nt far from Home. Near Glyndon, - - - - - 74

-An Old Valley in Driftless Area of Minnesota, _ - - . 77 -St. Peter Sandstone Overlain by Platteville Limestone, Near

Northtown. Northeast Minneapolis. ------- 78

Fig. 4 5 — Section in Gravel Pit Showing Stratified Sand Below with Coarse

Gravel and Boulders above, -------- 79

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ILLUSTRATIONS 11

Fig. 45a — Superior National Forest. (1) Falls of Isabella River. (2)

Kawishiwi River. (3) Gabro Lake, - -- - - -81

Fig. 46 — Map of Minnesota Showing Distribution of Forest and Prairie.

(After Upham and Butters.) ------- Facing 83

Fig. 47 — Road in Itasca State Park Leading from Douglas Lodge to Forestry School, ------------ 82

Fig. 48 — Second Growth Hardwood on Lake-washed Till, South of International Falls, ----------- 85

Fig. 49 — Hardwood Forest in Valley of Zumbro River, Southeastern Minnesota, -------------86

Fig. 50 — Norway Pine Forest, on Sandy Outwash Plain, near Cass Lake, - 88 Fig. 51 — Birch Thicket on Bear Point, Itasca State Park, - - - - 89

Fig. 52 — Hardwood Forest Bordering Small Stream. North of Jackson, - 90 Fig. 53 — Mississippi River as it Leaves Itasca Lake. Pine and Hardwood Trees on the Upland bordered by Water Loving Shrubs, and these in turn give way to Swamp Sedges, and finally to Water Lilies and Reeds, -----------91

Fig. 54 — A Muskeg Swamp cut through by a Drainage Ditch. Roseau County, 91 Fig. 55 — Cross Section of a Lake showing Wave-cut Shore (left) and Bog

Fig. 56 — Tamarack Swamp, Itasca County, - - - - - - - -95

Fig. 57 — Cross River Meandering through a Spruce Swamp, Cook County, Fig. 58 — Raised Bog. The Dotted Line shows the Original Land Surface.

The Bog has grown up around the Spring, ----- ^,8

Fig. 59 — Sugar Loaf. Near Winona, ---------99

Fig. 60 — Valley of Rollingstone River, -------- loi

Fig. 61 — North America in Cretaceous Time, - - - - - - -102

Fig. 62 — Valleys bordered by Limestone Tablelands near Hampton, - - 103 Fig. 63 — Profile at Red Wing, ---------- 104

Fig. 64 — Geologic Map of Minnesota and adjacent region showing Distribution of the Rock Formations at the Surface, - - - - 106

Fig. 6 5 — Granite Exposures at Upper Falls on Snake River, Kanabec

Fig. 66 — Granite Exposures on Rum River, South of Onamia, Mille Lacs

Fig. 67 — Columns showing the General Geologic Scale, ----- no

Fig. 68 — Granite Outcrop at Meyer's Quarry, near Pierz, Morrison County, 112 Fig. 69 — Slate Outcrop on Mill Island at Little Falls, Morrison County, - 113 Fig. 70 — Outcrop of Slate and Quartz-mica Schist, Northeast of Denham,

Fig. 71 — Sioux Quartzite Outcrop at Pipestone, - - - - - -116

Fig. 72 — Minnesota Valley at New Ulm, - - - - - - - - lib

Fig. 73 — Map showing part of Glacial Lake Agassiz, its outlet through

Minnesota Valley, and Beaches, - - - - - - -122

Fig. 74 — Beaches of Higher and Lower Stages of Lake Agassiz, - - - 124 Fig. 75 — Map Showing Southward Drainage of Lakes Agassiz and Duluth, 128 Fig. 76 — Gravel in Beach of Lake Agassiz, - - - - - - -132

Fig. 77 — Section through Herman Beach near Herman, ----- 133

Fig. 78 — Sections of Herman Beach in Logan Township. The beach sand

and gravel rest on till, - - - - - - - - -133

Fig. 79 — Profile across Beaches west of Maple Lake, ----- 134

Fig. 80 — Diagram of Herman and Norcross Beaches near Maple Lake, Polk

County, showing the multiple character Northward, - - - 136 Fig. 81 — Diagram showing Progressive Character of Beaches Northward

near Maple Lake, - - - - - -137

Fig. 82a — Minnesota Valley above Redwood Falls, West, - - - - 144

Fig. 82b — Mississippi Valley above Redwood Falls, East, - - - - 145

Fig. 83 — Valley of Root River, Fillmore County, ------ 149

Fig. 84 — Itasca Lake Post Office, Itasca State Park, ----- - 150

Fig. 85 — The Father of Waters, as it leaves Itasca Lake, - - - - 151

Fig. 86 — The Mississippi a few rods below the Outlet of Itasca Lake, - - 152 Fig. 87 — The Mississippi cne-half mile below the Outlet of Itasca Lake.

Residence of M. Heinzelman, -------- 153

Fig. 8 8 — As It Was. Old Corduroy Road in Itasca State Park, - - - 154 Fig. 89 — As It Is. Auto Road in Itasca State Park, - - - - - 155

Fig. 90 — Douglas Lodge, Itasca State Park, - - - - - - - 15^

Fig. 91 — Cottages at Douglas Lodge, Itasca State Par iv, - - - - - 157

Fig. 92 — Arko Lake and Pines, Itasca State Park, ----- 15^

i^ig. 1^5 — Wall of Lava Rock at The Dalles, _----._ 157

Fig. 93 — Lake St. Croix and the Glacial St. Croix River Valley, - - - 160 Fig. 94 — St. Croix River and Gorge below Taylor's Falls, - - - _ 162 Fig. 96 — A Pot Hole, ------------ 170

Fig. 9Y — A Grinder from a Pot Hole, - - - - - - - - -171

Fig. 98 — View of St. Anthony Falls as seen in 1857, - - - - - 174

Fig. 99 — Limestone Blocks Left at Foot of Receding Fall of River Warren, 176 Fig. 100 — Minnehaha Falls, ----------- 18I

Fig. 100a — Map of St. Anthony Gorge, - - - - - - - - 178

Fig. 101 — Glacial Valley of St. Louis River, ------- 134

Fig. 102 — Glacial Lake Duluth, ---------- i85

Fig. 103 — Terraces Showing the higher levels of Lake Duluth at Lutzen,

Fig. 104 — Map showing Glacial Lakes Ailkin and Upham, - - - - 190

Fig. 105 — Dairy Farm on clayey bottom of Lake Upham, - - - - 192

Fig. 10 6 — Map showing details of Glacial History in Freeborn County, - 196 Fig. 107 — Map showing the Chains of Lakes in Martin County, - - - 203 Fig. 108 — Map showing the Iron Ranges of Minnesota, - - - - 2O6

Fig. Ill — Redwood Falls, Ramsey State Park, - - - - - - 214

Fig. Ilia- Superior National Forest. (1) Burntside Lake, Ely. (2) Camp

Van Lac, Burntside Lake. (3) Burntside Lodge, Burntside

Fig. 112 — Map showing Soil Districts of Minnesota, - - - - - 218

F.g. 113 — Cut-over Land rapidly becoming Farms, - - - - - 2 20

Fig. 114 — Clover on rolling Moraine in Otter Tail County, - - - 221

1 ig. 11: — Loess-capped Hills in Pipestone County, - . _ . - 223

Fig. 116 — Loess-covered Driftless Area near Caledonia, - - - - - 22 4

Fig. 117 — Eroded Upland in Old Gray Drift (Kansan), northeast of

Fig. 118 — Plain of Old Gray Drift, east of Luverne, - - - - - 226

Fig. 119 — Moraine of Young Red Drift near Stillwater, - - - - 227

Fig. 120 — Red Drift Till-plain with forest, near Foley, --..-_ 229 Fig. 121 — Slope of Coteau des Prairies near Canby. Gray Drift Moraine, 2 31 Fig. 122 — Homestead on Clayey Moraine in Otter Tail County, - - 240 Fig. 123— Oats and Corn on Clayey Moraine in Otter Tail County, - - 234 Fig. 124 — Red Drift Till-plain near Foley, ------- 235

Fig. 125 — Farm on Clayey Keewatin Drift east of Cook, - - - . 239 Fig. 126 — Clover on Lake-washed Till south of Baudette and Spooner, - 240 Fig. 127 — Gray Drift Till-plain in Mahnomen County, ----- 242

Fig. 128 — Breaking New Land on clayey soil of Glacial Lake Bottom, - - 244 Fig. 129 — Dairy Herd at Meadowlands Farm, ------ 245

Fig. 130 — Field of Oats on Keewatin Till-plain in St. Louis County, - - 246 Fig. 131 — Section in a Gravelly Outwash Plain in Lake County, - - 247 Fig. 132 — Pioneer Marketing at Cook, --------- 248

Fig. 133 — Roseau River at Roseau, ---.-_---- 248

Fig. 134 — Out Doors at Lake Itasca, - - - - - - - - - 2 49

Fig. 136 — Moonlight on Lake Itasca, --------- 250

Fig. 138 — Beaver Dam, Burntside Lake, -------- 251

Fig. 141 — Wolf Lodge, Lake Minnetonka, ------- 255

Fig. 142 Duluth. (1) Steamer passing Aerial Bridge. (2) Ore Docks.

(3) Concrete Grain Elevators, - - - - - - - 256

Fig. 143 — Canada Goose and Cackling Goose, ------- 257

Pig. 144 — Snow Goose and Blue Goose, - - - - - - - -257

ILLUSTRATIOIS^^ 13

Fig. 145 — Prankliii Gulls, Heron Lake, - - - - - - - - 258

Fig. 146 — Black Tern and Nest, ------..- 258

•Fig. 147 — Pied-billed Grebe — Nest Open, - - - - . - - 259

Fig. 148 — Pied-billed Grebe — Nest Covered. ~ - - - 2 60

Fig. 149 — Franklin Gulls Following the Plow, - - - - 2 60

Fig. 151 — Channel Cat-Fish, - - - - - - 262

Fig. 152 — Common Buffalo Fish, -----.._- 262

Fig. 153 — Labrador Whitefish, - - - - - - - . . 262 l^iG. 2. Altitude Map of Minnesota.

Chapter I The Landscape

Introductory. Hoav many of the readers of this book understand what is meant by the words Landscape Geology? Everyone has seen a landscape, but we often hear people speak about geology as though that meant rocks and stones and minerals and therefore is hard and dry. It is true that geology deals with rocks and stones and minerals, among other things, and sometimes it is hard and dry. But arithmetic and grammar, history and geography, are sometimes ''hard and dry" also. It may not be the fault of the subject that it is uninteresting. The trouble may be in the way it is taught.

If, after the reader has studied this book, he finds geology "hard and dry," the trouble will not be with the subject, and probably not with the reader. If the author has not made the landscape, the fields, the roadside, the school grounds, the river, and the lake, more interesting because we have come to know more about them and to see something more in them than mere rocks and stones, sand and water, then it is his fault and not that of the subject.

Meaning of the Landscape. We have all seen a landscape, but have we ever thought what the landscape means? Has it ever occurred to you, that every hill, every level tract, every valley, every hollow or lake basin, has a meaning? We speak of the land surface as the landscape. Has it ever occurred to you that this landscape came to be the way you see it today through a long series of processes?

The land surface is not the same today that it was yesterday. Tomorrow it will be different again from today. The land surface is changing all the time. These changes are going on very slowly, to be sure, but they nevertheless go on. They have been going on during the countless ages of the past, and will continue so long as the earth stands.

The landscape of Minnesota is the expression of all that has gone on since the primitive crust of the earth first appeared above the waters of the primeval ocean. The wind and the rain, frost and sunshine, began their task of leveling down the landscape as soon as it appeared above the sea.

The land surface — that is all of the earth's crust that is above the level of the sea — is being weathered, eroded, worn down by the natural action of the elements. One of the most active of the natural processes by which land surfaces are worn away is that of running- water. Other agencies also do active work in changing the form of the landscape. Sometimes natural agencies also pile up portions of the surface materials as well as lower them or wear them away. Wind piles up fragments of earth into hills, called dunes. Ice in the form of great glaciers has piled up masses of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders into hills, called moraines.

What we see all about us is today's landscape, not yesterday's nor tomorrow's. It must not be thought there is any very abrupt or noticeable change from day to day, but because one cannot see the change from day to day does not alter the fact that change is going on. Yesterday and tomorrow in a geologic sense are but relative terms. "One day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day."

The Types of Hills. At first glance at the landscape of Minnesota it may seem as though there is not much system, that the hills and hollows, plains, lakes, and marshes are distributed with no particular system or order. A little study, however, will soon show that this is not the case; that the landscape is the result of an orderly, although complicated, system of processes, and these processes have been going on for long ages. However, if we go back to inquire into the causes that have worked, the problem will not be as difficult as may at first appear. And, indeed, the reader may come to the conclusion that the history of the making of Minnesota's landscape before men appeared upon the earth is (juite as interesting as the history of what has transpired since man came upon the scene.

Minnesota is not what would be called a hilly state, yet it has about all the kinds of hills there are. The hills of Minnesota may be divided into the following classes: (a) Hills of erosion, or those that have been formed by running water; (b) Hills of glacial deposit, masses of earth materials piled together by moving ice; (c) Hills of glacial erosion, those that have been carved out of the landscape by the digging and scooping agency of nioving ice; (d) Hills of wind-blown sand; (e) Loess hills, masses of fine grained material borne by the wind and deposited as dust; (f) Hills of uplift, higher parts of the crust of the earth pushed up by forces within the earth; (g) Volcanic hills, formed by violent explosion or upheaval from within the earth.

These seven types include the more important kinds of hills that exist anywhere in the world. The processes by which these hills have been formed are the processes by which hills have been formed since the beginning of the world.

Hills of Erosion. The side of a valley is a hill. If valleys are close togelhei-, tiiey are parted or separated by hills. When it rains on the land, water runs down the hillsides and down the valleys. That is how the valleys and hills, that is, hills of erosion, are made. Everyone has seen how a plowed field, a road grade, or a bank of earth is torn up, washed out, gullied, or ditched by storms. After many storms a ditch may grow to be a larger gulch. That is how such erosion valleys as are found in southeastern Minnesota came to be. The difference between the valleys in southeastern Minnesota and the gullies or gulches in the fields, is that the former have been a good deal longer in the making, and they are therefore larger.

Hills of erosion have been formed by running water. They are generally parts of a plain which have not yet been removed by erosion of streams. Such are the hills in southeastern Minnesota. In this part of the state the plain has been cut into by streams. The landscape is no long-er a smooth plain, but is intersected by many deep valleys along the streams.