Anti-scepticism; or, An inquiry into the nature and philosophy of language, as connected with the Sacred Scriptures

Preface

AMONG all the inquiries which are presented to the student, there are few so well calculated to call forth his energies as some of the elementary questions respecting language. Those particularly concerning articulate voices in contradistinction to instinctive signs, the nature of the substantive and the verb, the use of the various parts of speech, universal grammar, and the diversity of tongues, — are topics which excite in the mind of the intellectual student an especial interest.

The Author has endeavoured to explain the significations of the substantive and the verb by the use of particular and general arguments, — all tending to assert the being and attributes of a First Cause, and to oppose the popular doctrines of atheistical and sceptical philosophy*

What he has advanced concerning the writings of Locke, and his controversy with the Bishop of Worcester, is offered with exceeding diffidence.

IV PKEFACE.

The arguments respecting the primitive language are deduced entirely from the sacred writings, and the greater part of the notes illustrative of the text are sanctioned by the authorities of D'Oyly and Mant.

As the writer of a recent work has affirmed, that the vert is the primitive part of speech, and that every sentence is a factitious word, it may be here noticed, that a few hints on the same subjects, but espousing contrary doctrines, will be found in the following pages. The Author conceives it hardly requisite to mention, that the remarks on sceptical philosophy have no reference whatever to the above writer.

Chap. I

Page Notices in the Scriptures respecting certain facts, as pertaining to the arts and sciences — their differences— the ends which they are calculated to promote — object of the following Treatise — to discourse on the Nature and Philosophy of Language, as connected with the Sacred Scriptures — author of the " Diversions of Purley" — the noun — verb, and its " peculiar differential circumstance," &c. — tjhe philosophy of Horne Tooke not favourable to the inquiry respecting the verb* — destruction of the MSS. of Horne Tooke, and the probable conclusion to be drawn from the circumstance — the opinions of other writers respecting the primitive part of speech — the object of the present Treatise more fully stated, and the plan for pursuing the inquiry laid down «• 1

Chap. II

Faculties and powers of the inferior animals — those of mankind — the progressive state of man — the perceptive faculty of an infant, and that of other animals — their ends essentially different — instinct and intellect— in^- stinctive signs not analogous to language » 7

Chap. III

Comparison between the perceptive faculty, as observable in an infant or child, with the same faculty in the adult — example drawn from a view of objects at sea — elucidation of three elementary parts of speech — five parts of speech elucidated by four balls — conceptions of novelty as giving birth to the expression of ideas — their differences — substantive the primitive part of speech — correspondence of the argument with that of Locke and the Bishop of Worcester respecting substance— transpositive idiom of language affording an additional argu-

VI CONTENTS.

Page

nn ut in favour of the hypothesis — the verb consequently not the primitive — the theory embracing such a doctrine proved to be false - - - - 13

Chap. IV

The nature of the verb — its being, action, &c. — time — preliminary elucidations deduced from the action and re-action of balls — metaphysical science recommended — verb the life of language, but not the cause of the existence of the substantive — atheistical philosophy — an exposition of its absurdities recommended, as subsidiary to the theory for unfolding the force and application of the verb ---_-_ 21

Chap. V

Grotius — Locke — Bichat — Morgan — Lawrence — Rennell — true philosophy — body — soul — leading faculties of the soul — passions — Aristotle — Cicero — three distinct faculties of the soul — the soul nevertheless undivided — metaphysical writers — their inaccurate definitions of the passions — lecturer of Trinity College, Dublin — Dr. Hutcheson — no exciting reason previous to affection and instinct — excitement to the faculty of judging dependent on the will — Locke's definition of passion proved to be incorrect — appetite — affection — passions — definitions ------ 24

Chap. VI

Locke's notion of matter and substance — controversy between Locke and the Bishop of Worcester — the inference of Locke shewn to be the highest probability and opinion ; that of the Bishop of Worcester, the demonstration and certainty, that " the thinking thing in us is immaterial" — argument of modern chemists confuted — the commencement of the study of philosophy and true theoretic science aided by the light of Revelation 37

Chap. VII

Opinion that if Home Tooke had pursued the same course of reasoning as Locke had done, respecting fundamental doctrines, he would then have been able to answer his own query respecting the substantive and the verb — ap-

CONTENTS. Vll

Page plication of the two preceding chapters to the question of Home Tooke — none else than the first cause can

Say I HAVE EXISTENCE IN OR WITH MY ESSENCE —

inference and exemplification of the nature of the artificial verb and definition — elucidation of five elementary parts of speech and the use of the article and other restrictives — the use of supernumerary particles when reasoning on the simple proposition - 44

Chap. VIII

Question, whether or not the English grammar should be formed on the Latin plan — opinions of grammarians respecting the six cases — objections answered — the authors of the Eton Latin Grammar have proceeded upon the supposition that the Latin can be taught in connexion with the English grammar — Latin neuter nouns, &c. — elucidations of the English genitive — accentuation and the union of the parts of speech which stand for the English of Latin nouns — Latin prepositions — tenses of the verb - - - - - 56

Chap. IX

Sentences — the opinion that every sentence is a factitious word controverted — Burke — the unity essential to a thinking being is not requisite to the operations of a thinking being — ellipsis of the verb " to be" — sentences of childhood — opinion that the imperatives, go, hark, &c. are virtual sentences — this opinion controverted — order of words analogous to the operations of intellect — elucidations — and conclusion of the argument - 75

Chap. X

Question respecting the origin of language — was it invented by man, or was it revealed to him by his Creator ? — atheistical philosophy — remarks of Johnson — Selkirk — Juan Fernandez — the young man caught in the woods of Hanover — in France — arguments drawn from these circumstances, and from Genesis, chap. 1. — the knowledge and use of any language to be improved by an acquaintance with other languages — primitive language — the Scriptures afford the safest arguments respecting the transmission of it — writers on this subject not corresponding in their opinions— the claims of different natiii CONTENTS.

Page tions — Arabians — Syrians — Ethiopians — Armenians and the Jews — etymology of names considered — the name of Babel — and the names which are assigned by Moses td eastern countries, &c. — proved by Mr. Maurice to be the veiy names by which they were anciently known over all the east - - 91

Chap. XI

No notice in the sacred records respecting the primitive tongue — arguments of various writers stated— probability that all the people of the earth journeyed and settled in the plains of Shinar — division of the people of all the earth — remark of Shuckford respecting the Babylonian and Hebrew language — answered by a passage in Jeremiah, &c. — alphabetic writing — writings of Job — language of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob - 99

Chap. XII

Causes of the fluctuation of language stated — language of the Israelites neither spoken nor generally understood in -Egypt at the time of the famine — the marriages of Joseph and Moses with Egyptian women — the friendship which possibly subsisted between the Israelites and the Egyptians until the death of Joseph — the mixed multitude which departed from Egypt — the language in which the written laAV was promulgated on Mount Sinai different from the language of the original or former sons of Eber — from the time of the captivity the Hebrew ceased to be a living language - 108

ANTI-SCEPTICISM ;

An INQUIRY into the NATURE and PHILOSOPHY of LAN- GUAGE, as connected with the SACRED SCRIPTURES,

CHAP. I.— Sec. I

Notices in the Scriptures respecting certain facts, as pertaining to the arts and sciences — their differences — the ends which they are calculated to promote — object of the following Treatise — to discourse on the Nature and Philosophy of Language, as connected with the Sacred Scriptures — author of the " Diversions of Purley" — the noun ---verb, and its " peculiar differential circumstance," &c. — the philosophy of Home Tooke not favourable to the inquiry respecting the verb — destruction of the MSS. of Home Tooke, and the probable conclusion to be drawn from the circumstance — the opinions of other writers respecting the primitive part of speech — the object of the present Treatise more fully stated, and the plan for pursuing the inquiry laid down.

ALL the circumstances and relations, which are incidentally mentioned in the sacred records respecting contemporary manners and the arts and sciences, are, unquestionably, calculated to assist and strengthen the intellectual energies of man. But the intimations and relations which we find in those sacred stores are of a two-fold nature. They are divisible into those which are essential to the necessities and comforts of man in this lower world, and into those which have reference more particularly to his being and happiness in that which is to come. The former may be viewed as so many relations of facts, which were addressed immediately to the external senses at the time those facts are recorded to have taken place ; and this knowledge, the sound philosopher believes could not, at so early a period of the creation,

Z anti-scepticism; on,

have been acquired by unassisted reason. Such, among others, are the relations respecting language, husbandry, the reduction of metals, and metal! urgic science : while the latter, viz. those intimations which concern the happiness of man in a future state, were designed more peculiarly to stimulate the nobler faculties of the mind, and were further intended for reproof and for instruction ; such are the intimations in Genesis, Joshua, Isaiah, &c. respecting the sun,* and the token of the

* Sun stand thou still, &c. Josh. x. 12. It is remarkable, that the terms in which this event is recorded in the sacred writings, do not agree with what is now known concerning the motions of the heavenly bodies ; for whereas it is recorded, that the sun and moon were made to stop for a whole day, it is now sufficiently known that day and night are not caused by any motion of the sun, but by the rotation of the earth on its own axis. It should be remembered, however, that as in those early ages men had not the slightest notion of the modern discoveries in astronomy, it was unavoidably necessary that the event should be described according to the knowledge then obtained. If God had dictated to Joshua to record the miracle in terms suitable to the modern discoveries in astronomy, Joshua would have appeared to express it in a manner directly contrary to all the rules of science then known: and his account of what had happened would have been objected to as false in astronomy. It would have appeared rather a wild fancy, or a gross blunder of his own, than a true account of a real miracle ; and so would have been received with little attention by the persons for whom it was written. Thus when God directed Joshua to record this miracle, he did not direct him to record it in a manner more agreeable to true astronomy ; because if he had done so, unless he inspired the world at the same time with a true knowledge of astronomy, the account would rather have tended to raise amongst those who read it and heard of it, disputes and " oppositions of science falsely so called/' than have promoted the great ends of religion intended by it.— Dr. Shuckford, D'Oyly and Mant's Bible.

It has been observed that the Hebrew word (WDM) does not signify the sun, but the solar light ; thus God might, at the desire of Joshua, have so increased the refractive power of the atmosphere, that the light of the sun was observed long after the regular setting of that luminary ; in other words, the solar light remained on the earth, or figuratively " the sun stood still." God, by staying the departure of the covenant of Almighty God after the flood, the rainbow;* recitals plainly conforming to the opinions and notions of the patriarchal ages : and such, likewise, are all the exact and perfect declarations respecting true philosophy and metaphysical science ; exhibiting to our minds the present weakness of our capacities, and offering to us constant lessons of humility ; exciting in us feelings of industry to improve our knowledge and enlarge our faculties, and finally, tending to fortify our minds against the violation of scepticism on the one hand, and spiritual pride on the other. Abstractedly considered, such, doubtless, is the two-fold meaning of all the scientific circumstances and intimations, illustrative of the opinions of the times, which are to be met with in Scripture ; and which, to the highest degree, are interesting to students of every branch of sound, unsophisticated philosophy. Considered in a religious point of view, those relations are intimately connected with the internal evidences of the Bible.

The object of the following Treatise is to discourse on one branch of science ; the Nature and Philosophy of Language, as connected with the Sacred Scriptures. During the inquiry, it shall be my endeavour to show, in opposition to sceptical philosophy, that the substantive, and not the verb, is the primitive part of speech ;

sun's light, exposed to the Hebrews the Philistines' folly in attributing omnipotence to a body which could be arrested at the pleasure of a superior power. — Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.

* It is not at all necessary to inquire whether there was or was not any rainbow before the flood. Upon either supposition the Divine Wisdom is very apparent, in appointing the rainbow for a token of his covenant and a memorial of his promise, that as often as men should see it, they might remember, that God had given them such a promise, and that his infallible word should be their sufficient security. — Dr. Waterland, WOyly and Manfs Bible.

B 2 i- anti-scepticism; on,

and, consequently, that it is that into which every one of the rest is more easily to be resolved : " And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field."

In my attempt to unfold the office and character of the verb, I shall endeavour to expose some of the principles and doctrines of Materialism, Atheistical and Sceptical Philosophy, and to offer one or two remarks on the nature of the passions. To this I shall add a few suggestions respecting grammar; a few hints concerning the formation of sentences, as connected with the state and progress of thought; and, finally, in conjunction with arguments deduced from the sacred authority of Scripture, an inquiry relating to the primitive language, the changes and diversity of tongues.

CHAP. I.— Sec II.

It is singular, that the author of the " Diversions of Purley," should have traced every part of speech to its original source, and in the structure of language marked the precise boundaries of each, and yet that he should have affirmed the verb to be something more than the noun : so that while he separated the rest of the parts of speech from their root, he suffered the verb to remain in quiet possession of the "peculiar differential circumstance" which he conceived it to inherit over and above the noun, the primitive part of speech or root. Preparatory to his Philological Diversions, had Home Tooke permitted himself to investigate the natural progress of his own thoughts, had he derived his philosophy from its true and genuine source, had his mind been engaged in subjects connected with himself, his fellow beings, and his God, the true, the only philosophical root and cause of all things, — had this been the order of the study of Home Tooke, no man, whose philosophy and metaphysics are sound, will deny that there would have been a greater probability of the philologist's success in assigning to the verb what he termed " its peculiar differential circumstance :" he would probably have been enabled to assign to the verb its proper station in common with the rest of the parts of speech, and thus have separated it from its root.

It appears, however, clear, that the philosophy of Home Tooke was not so humiliating to his species as that of some of his contemporaries, and others who have survived him. But in point of talent, it is almost a profanation of every sort of justice to compare this individual with any of those persons who held the same doctrines in common with himself. While, therefore, it is to be acknowledged, that the author of the Diversions of Purley was avowedly a friend to all the wild and destructive schemes of liberty which have since continued to poison and infest the minds of the ignorant, the wretched, and the depraved, still I contend, that the principles of Home Tooke were not so degrading to human nature as those of certain of his contemporaries. Whatever may have been his notions of Revealed Religion, and however he may have promulgated them amongst the circle of his acquaintance, — as far as the individual circumstance extends of his not having in writing transmitted heretical opinions, thus far, I say, his reputation is not " damned to everlasting fame." In attributing to the noun the right of being called the primitive part of speech, he necessarily acknowledged the i> WTr-SCF.PTK'lSM, OR,

declaration of the sacred writings on this point to be correct. I am not qualified to affirm, that he was pleased at this coincidence, or as some have supposed, that he was led to, and was strengthened in the opinion from a consideration of the controversy between the Bishop of Worcester and Locke, respecting innate ideas ! For my own part, I cannot see what connexion subsists between the doctrines respecting innate ideas, and the question concerning the primitive part of speech. Home Tooke was of opinion, that the noun was the primitive root of all the other parts of speech : and this opinion is undoubtedly supported by the authority of the well-known passage in the 2nd chapter of Genesis : — " And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field." But independently of this coincidence, as proving that the judgment of Home Tooke was hardly so degraded as that of his party, we have tolerably good grounds for hoping, that feelings of conviction struck the mind of this philosopher during the latter period of his life : when he was led to burn his manuscript writings, and communicate to his friend, that " he was preparing for a long journey."*

* About a fortnight before the death of Home Tooke, Mr. Whitwell, the architect, informed me of his friend's calling upon the author of "Evea TLrepoe vTa, when he found him busily employed in burning his manuscript writings. These writings were of such number and magnitude as to occupy the whole of the morning before they were consumed. Having been asked what he was about, — after a pause of some time, Home Tooke replied—" I am preparing for a long journey." " This was accompanied with a manner so deeply impressive, that I shall never forget it," said the friend of Mr. Whitwell : he stated, that several times during his stay he was obliged to retreat from the fire-place, in consequence of the heat which the blaze of the papers occasioned, and that the eye of Home Tooke was alternately riveted on them and him, anxiously waiting the destruction of the writings, and seemingly fearful lest his friend should secrete any of them. It is supposed, that

AN INOUIRY, &C. 7

But if it be considered strange for Home Tooke to have affirmed, that verbs, as well as the other parts of speech, are nouns, and that a verb is something more than a noun ; and that the title of verb was given to it on account of that distinguishing something more than mere nouns convey, — it seems, to me, at least, equally strange that writers, who cannot be suspected for one moment of being sceptical in their opinions, should have broached theories in order to prove, that the verb, and not the noun, is the primitive or root of all the other parts of speech. It is perfectly unnecessary to enumerate the names of these writers, or to enter minutely into their arguments merely for the sake of confuting them. One of the objects of this Treatise will be secured, by stating my own reasons for believing, that the noun, and not the verb, is the original or primitive root, whence every other part of speech is derived.

For this purpose, and to form an adequate notion of language, and its rise and progress to the grammatical structure of a sentence, it seems requisite to contemplate the nature of man in particular situations ; first in his infancy, and secondly in some selected instance of his state in riper years.

m

Chap. II

Faculties and powers of the inferior animals — those of mankind — the progressive state of man — the perceptive faculty of an infant, and that of other animals — their ends essentially different — instinct and intellect — instinctive signs not analogous to language.

X HE finger of nature operates on the senses of infants^ in common with all animal bodies, by painful or plea-

au unpublished volume of "Enta YiTtpoivra, or " Diversions of Purley," perished in the flames.

surable sensations : and every animal capable of expressing sound, makes known the degree of his sensation by appropriate signs of consonance or dissonance. But the Creator has limited the faculties and powers of the inferior animals : he has attached to them peculiar instincts, by which they are enabled to execute, with exactness and precision, every work allotted to their natures ; and a very short period perfects the end of their existence. The state of man is far different; destined for nobler purposes, his form and habits are progressive. Many of the instinctive powers common to other animals, are designedly withheld from him, and the free exercise of those which are intellectual is substituted in their stead. A larger portion of time is, therefore, requisite for the developement of the faculties of man. On his entrance into the world, he is more helpless than other animals : and tears and cries demonstrate both the imbecility of his nature, and the acuteness of his animal feeling. His first sensation is that of pain : but no sooner is he relieved, than he sinks almost into a state of apathy. At this period his being may be called mere animal life : his intellectual existence is but in embryo. Thus almost insensible, and altogether helpless, does he recline, till disease, corporal pain, or the sensations of hunger, again call him to action ; when the fond caresses of a watchful parent yield to him nurture and support. If pain be the first sensation of an infant, it is equally true, that the incessant care of a mother will soon create in it even another feeling. While the child is hanging at her breast, ask the mother what her feelings are, what the sensations of her babe : — she will tell you they are those of pleasure and delight. The sympathetic glow of nature reverberates from each content and pleasure: and while the infant sinks to slumber and repose, the mother breathes her joy, and sings forth hymns of praise.

The remarks of Bishop Butler conduce much to the purpose of this discussion, and are deeply philosophical. *•' Nature," says this learned prelate, " does in no wise qualify us wholly, much less at once, for a mature state of life. Even maturity of understanding and bodily strength, are not only arrived to gradually, but are also very much owing to the continued exercise of our powers of body and mind from infancy. But if we suppose a person brought into the world with both these in maturity, as far as this is conceivable, he would plainly at first be as unqualified for the human life of mature age as an ideot. He would be in a manner distracted with astonishment, and apprehension, and curiosity, and suspense; nor can one guess how long it would be before he would be familiarised to himself and the objects about him enough, even to set himself to any thing. It may be questioned too, whether the natural information of his sight and hearing, would be of any manner of use at all to him in acting, before experience. And it seems, that men would be strangely headstrong and self-willed, and disposed to exert themselves with an impetuosity, which would render society insupportable, and the living in it unpracticable, were it not for some acquired moderation and self-government, some aptitude and readiness in restraining themselves, and concealing their sense of things. Want of every thing of this kind which is learnt, would render a man as uncapable of society, as want of language would : or as his natural ignorance of any of the particular employments of life, would render him uncapable of providing himself with the common conveniences, or supplying the necessary wants of it. In these respects, and probably in many more, of which we have no particular notion, mankind is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature; utterly deficient and unqualified, before the acquirement of knowledge, experience, and habits, for that mature state of life which was the end of his creation, considering him as only related to this world."*

It is very certain that according to the accounts of nurses, and those concerned in the management of children, an infant does not, as it is termed, " begin to take notice," until after the age of four or five weeks ; and the first objects which he perceives are his own hands. From that period, provided the infant continue in health, the mental faculties of perceiving, thinking, reasoning, knowing, and every other faculty connected with the powers of reflexion, are uniformly progressive. The first of these faculties, viz. perception, upon which the other faculties depend, seems, therefore, to remain for a considerable time in a state of quiescence. This is an interesting circumstance, and appears to be, in some degree, connected with the philosophy of speech. The senses are the great originals of all our simple ideas of external objects; and by these the faculties of reflexion are influenced and exerted. By what means body and soul are united, and how, through the medium of the outward organs of sense, the mind receives its impressions, are questions too delicate and abstruse to be comprehended and answered by man. His nature, however prominent in ability, feels itself incompetent to the task; it hesitates, and presently shrinks beneath the inquiry: " better to bless the sun than reason how it shines."f The material

* Bishop Butler's Analogy, part 1, chap, 5, sec. 3. t Ford.

AN INQUIRY, &C. I 11

and immaterial parts of man, however, are admirably fitted to act occasionally in unison; and in various situations of his being, they are so constructed as to be very much influenced by each other. These are truths selfevident in nature, and they give to science and philosophy an antecedent proposition, by which one may be enabled to reason on the probable cause of the quiescent state of the mind of an infant; and from which the sound philologist may be enabled to draw a reasonable hypothesis concerning the original part of speech, and the philosophy of language. At this early period of their being, the difference between the state of man and that of the inferior creature, is very striking. The perceptive faculty of our species does not manifest itself near so* soon as the perceptive faculty of other animals ; but the developement of this one faculty in the infant, evinces to my mind, the boundaries of instinct, and reveals thejirst dawn of intellect and reason. The immediate and peculiar cares of the dam for her offspring are very soon dismissed, and are at an end. The young is soon enabled to protect and help himself; he feels no actual want, but that which is absolutely requisite for the duration or continuance of himself and species. It is true he sees surrounding objects and is pleased; he plays and frisks before them : but these are altogether distinct from his necessities ; they are not in any degree essential to his real happiness. Take away the object of his play and gambol, is he irreconcilable ? No : — however suddenly removed, he neither laments, bemoans, nor does he betray the least uneasiness of sensation. The perceptive faculty of the infant leads to a very different end : after a certain period, he begins to notice certain casual objects ; — at their approach he feels delight ; he soon selects a favourite one ; he calls, Mamma ! and points, and signifies by signs his wish to have it. Its removal creates uneasy feeling : he cries.