The gift of tongues

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Preface

The science of Pathology has contributed in no inconsiderable degree to the physical and physiological well-being of the human body. A science of Pathology in the realm of those things which are popularly called spiritual can contribute in like and, perhaps, in even greater degree to the well-being of the human soul.

It ought to be a matter of popular knowledge that some states of mind and some states of action which are called spiritual, and which are claimed to be spiritual, are called spiritual and claimed to be spiritual simply because they are unusual. It ought to be a matter of common knowledge that such states of mind and action are the expressions of diseased minds and diseased bodies, that when we are dealing with an extraordinary religious experience we are very likely to be dealing with disease. It ought to be a matter of common knowledge that historically such religious experiences are practically always associated with anti-moral conduct, and more particularly with transgressions of accepted moral standards in the vita sexualis.

This discussion of the gift of tongues is certainly not exhaustive. The present day tongues people, for example, have not even been discussed. But the mental traits and the physiological traits of the Shakers, the Irvingites and the primitive Mormons are the mental traits and the physiological traits of the present day tongues people, and, in fact, of that increasing group of earnest but unthinking Christians who are convinced of the present

vii viii PREFACE

revival in their various aspects of the apostolic charismata.

If this book shall serve to shed even a faint ray of light upon the kingdom of truth, I shall be profoundly grateful.

A. M.

Contents

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Chapter I: The Gift Of Tongues In The Apostolic Church .... 17

Theories concerning the gift all open to objections.

The Mythical theory.

The Narrative in Acts regarded as a history — a miracle of speaking — a miracle of hearing — a permanent endowment, or an epideiktic miracle.

"The eighteen benedictions." An archaic language. A tongue controlled by God.

Other references to the tongues. Considerations based on the Greek terminology. The tongues probably a disorderly ecstasy.

Chapter Ii: Some Forms Of Related Physiological And Psychologi- Cal Phenomena 26

References to the gift in patristic literature: Irenaeus; Tertullian.

The reformation and the revival of tongues.

Speaking in other languages viewed by the mediaeval mind as a sign of divine favor: St. Francis Xavier; St. Hildegarde.

As a sign of demon influence: The Alchemists; Roger Bacon and the Brazen Head.

As a sign of a distemper.

For a warning against impending danger.

In witchcraft. Evil spirits understand other languages.

The magic power of a name. The name Jehovah. Names written on charms.

Among primitive peoples: Names dangerous to pronounce.

Healing words. Mr. Austin; Anthony Knivet.

ix x CONTENTS

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Words used in exorcisms. The language of sorcery.

Magic formulae of witchcraft.

The use of meaningless words in songs. Hepworth Dixon and the Agapemone.

The semi-insane and the semi-responsible. Criminal argot.

Religious movements in the Middle Ages of an abnormal motor character.

The Pastoreaux. The children of the Amsterdam Orphan House. St. Brigette's Convent, etc. Rev. John Mason.

Revival phenomena: George Fox, John Wesley, Charles Wesley, Band Room Methodists. Jumpers. Redruth Chapel. The Kentucky Revival.

Spiritualism. The Amana Community. Trance Preaching. Mediumistic utterances. Charles H. Foster.

CHAPTER III : THE URSULINE NUNS AND The Carmelite miracles

The Ursuline Convent.

Urban Grandier — his personality — his enemies.

The Ursuline nuns become demon-possessed. Characteristics of the possession.

Louis XIII causes a formal investigation.

Grandier accused.

The possessed are found to be able to speak foreign languages.

Evidences of fraud.

Grandier put to death.

Chapter IV : The Camisards Or French Prophets 70

The name Camisard.

The origin of the movement.

The method of inducing the prophetic spirit. Migration to England of Marion, Cavalier, and Fage. Sir Richard Bulkeley.

Camisard prophecies and miracles. > Betty Gray restored to sight.

Fage, Cavalier and others speak in tongues. Sexual irregularities.

CONTENTS xi

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Chapter V: The Shakers And The Millennial Church 82

The French prophets and the Wardleys.

Ann Lee — her family, social position and leadership of the Society.

The sexual life revealed to be the root of human depravity.

Ann Lee's imprisonment.

Her religious experiences.

The Shakers emigrate to America.

Early proselyting and persecutions.

Character of Ann Lee. Her gifts as a prophet or seer. She works miracles.

Other views of her character.

Shaker practice of dancing naked ; promiscuous bathing as a religious rite ; tendencies toward perversion in the vita sexualis; exhibitionism; mortification gifts; flagellation.

After the death of Ann Lee.

Joseph Meacham and Lucy Wright.

The Kentucky revival.

Shaker theology. The nature of God. The millennium.

Their religious exercises: Dances and gifts, the jerks, the laughing gift.

The tongues among the Shakers.

Cases of tongues: Ann Lee; Father William; Seth Youngs ; Latin spoken.

Brown's experiences : Eleazar Rand ; Lamson ; Betsey Looge; Eunice Chapman; Dr. Dwight. The wordless songs.

Chapter VI : Rev. Edward Irving And The Catholic Apostolic Church Or Irvingites 129

Rev. Edward Irving — his birth, early life, and education

— life in London.

Opinions regarding Irving: Thomas Carlyle; James

Bridges; Barry Cornwall; Meade C. Williams. Irving's alleged lack of a sense of humor — his eagerness

for the supernatural — his utter want of common sense.

At the "York" in Prince's Street. Mr. Craig's story.

Dr. Chalmers' estimate of Irving.

Irving and the London Missionary Society. The visit of xii CONTENTS

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Chalmers and Irving to Coleridge. Irving as a preacher. Lockhart characterizes him as "pure humbug." His lectures at St. Andrews. Irving's mannerisms. The London Times as quoted by Washington Wilks.

Trial of Edward Irving before a Court of Common Sense. Fraser's Magazine on "On the Rev. Edward Irving and His Adversaries." Kirkcaldy Kirk and Carlyle's baker. Addison Alexander's description of Irving. Irving translates "The Coming of the Messiah," etc.

Henry Drummond and the Albury Prophetic Conference.

Robert Story of Rosneath. Isabella Campbell and "Peace in Believing." Extraordinary religious experience. Mary Campbell becomes her successor. Her interest in missions. Her lack of interest in household duties. Mr. Story and the missionaries.

Rev. A. J. Scott and the Campbells.

First appearance of the tongues.

The Macdonalds. Margaret Macdonald miraculously healed. Mary Campbell also healed. Speaking in tongues at Port Glasgow. First manifestation of the tongues in London.

Trial of Mr. Campell and Mr. Maclean for heresy.

Mr. Taplin speaks in tongues in Irving's Church. Sunday, October 1, 1831, and the first manifestation of the tongues at a regular morning service.

Disturbance at the evening service. Description of the scenes at Irving's Church. Robert Bridges.

Robert Baxter. His experiences and gifts. Baxter's prophecies. The visit to the Chancellor.

Thomas Erskine of Linlathen.

Contradictory prophecies and disagreements among the prophets.

The language of the tongues and various specimens.

Mary Campbell and automatic writing.

The tongues an unknown language.

Irving tried and condemned for heresy. Death of Irving. The Catholic Apostolic Church.

Chapter Vii: The Mormons Or The Church Of Jesus Christ Of The Latter Day Saints 198

Joseph Smith, Jr. His family and early life. Joseph Smith, Jr., and Joseph Smith, Sr., practice divination.

CONTENTS xiii

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Joseph Smith, Jr., converted, and beholds a vision.

The Angel Moroni appears.

The Golden Plates found.

Smith's marriage.

Translation of the Golden Plates.

Martin Harris and Professor Anthon.

Method of translating the plates.

Harris, Cowdery and the baptism of Smith and Cowdery.

Contents of the Book of Mormon.

The Spaulding theory.

The Urim and Thummim, crystal-gazing and Dr. Dee.

The Mormon Church organized.

Sidney Rigdon and the Kirtland ecstasies.

Joseph Smith, Jr., alone to receive revelations.

The tongues appear.

Method of speaking in tongues.

The Choctaw language an unknown tongue.

Gunnison's incident of the tongues.

Peter Cartwright and the tongues.

Other incidents.

Dedication of Kirtland temple. Brigham Young speaks in tongues.

The Kirtland Safety Bank.

Settlement at Far West.

Settlement and prosperity at Nauvoo.

The Nauvoo Temple.

Revelation on polygamy and Smith's extra-marital relationships.

Smith's personality. His shrewd common sense.

Caswell, the psalter, and the Kirtland mummies.

Egyptology and the translation of the Book of Abraham.

Smith's fondness for unusual words.

Origin of the word "Mormon."

Chapter Viii: Physiological And Psy- Chological Aspects Of The Gift 250

The tongues always first manifested in a diseased person : Ann Lee, Mary Campbell, the Macdonalds, Joseph Smith, Jr., Sidney Rigdon.

Associated pathological phenomena. The "falling exercise," "the jerks," "whirling gift," "dumb devils," "barks," "tactile anaesthesia," the "laughing gift."

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CONTENTS

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The atavistic element in the tongues.

Disturbances in the vita sexualis. Perverse sexual tendencies among the Shakers.

Egomania. Pathological lying.

Eagerness for the supernatural.

Vanity.

Imitation.

Contagion.

Aversion to culture.

The tongues as language. Their thought content.

The mental state involved similar to that in alcoholic intoxication, epilepsy or in coitu.

CHAPTER IX: ETHICAL ASPECTS OF THE GIFT The necessity for an ethical expression of religion

Crimes associated with the tongues movement. Sexual irregularities. Injustices to women and children.

Crimes of violence. The Camisards. < The Mountain Meadows Massacre. Judicial crimes in witchcraft.

Dishonesty. The Shakers. The Kirtland Bank. Pious frauds. Betty Gray.

The Shaker psychological fraud. The tragedy of Edward Irving.

The crime against intelligence.

The tongues peoples related to the criminaloid type.

The nature of religion and the nature of the tongues.

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Chapter I The Gift Of Tongues In The Apostolic Church

There is no wholly satisfactory solution of the problems raised by the accounts of the gift of tongues as those narratives appear in the New Testament. Any solution which we adopt involves difficulties, uhe most easy solution of all New Testament problems is, of course, the purely arbitrary but not unpopular one of regarding as textual interpolations such New Testament passages as involve difficulty in exegesis.: But such a position in reference to the manifestations of the tongues in the New Testament record involves a multiplicity of contradictions and difficulties so great that we are obliged to look in another direction for the solution of our problem.

If we accept a late date for the writing of the Acts, and eliminate from our consideration the references to the tongues in the Corinthian Epistles, it is possible to recognize in the account of Pentecost a tradition, modified by an idealizing and myth-making tendency. Just as, according to Rabbinic tradition, the giving of the old law on Mt. Sinai was characterized by the speaking of Jehovah in a divine language, a language which could be understood in seventy different tongues, so the establishing of the new church and the beginning of a new spiritual order might fittingly and desirably be accompanied by a supernaturally-directed speaking in other tongues. Such an interpretation of the narrative of Pentecostal tongues has the merit of being well within the realm of psychological possibilities. It involves, however^ the task not only of disproving an early date for Acts, and the interpreting of the later cases of glossolalia on some other basis than the basis adopted for interpreting the Pentecostal tongues, but it involves also all the gratuitous assumptions and arbitrary exegeses which are inextricably involved in a mythological interpretation of the New Testament, making the myth indeed the child of the wish, not in this case, however, the wish of the myth-maker, but the wish and even caprice of the New Testament interpreter and exegete.

A third solution of the problem is to be found in regarding the narrative of Pentecost as history. But merely to say that we are dealing with history, with events which occurred, not with events which ought to have occurred to have afforded what is conceived to have been a proper setting for the early days of the Christian Church, does not by any means solve the problem. We are still obliged carefully to study our text in order to arrive at some conclusion as to what actually happened at Pentecost:

"And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.

And there were dwelling at Jerusalem Jews, devout men, out of every nation under heaven.

Now when this was noised abroad, the multitude came together, and were confounded, because that every man heard them speak in his own language.

And they were all amazed, and marvelled, saying one to another, Behold, are not all these which speak Galileans?

And how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born?

Parthians, and Medes and Elamites, and the dwellers in Mesopotamia, and in Judea, and Cappadocia, in Pontus, and Asia.

IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH 19

Phrygia, and Pamphylia, in Egypt, and in the parts of Libya about Cyrene, and strangers of Rome, Jews and proselytes.

Cretes and Arabians, we do hear them speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God." *

What is the real nature of the event that is thus described ?

The most common interpretation of the passage is found in the postulating of a miracle as a result of which all or some of the Christians present were enabled to speak in foreign languages which they had never studied and in which they had never before spoken. The question then arises as to whether this endowment was temporary or permanent. The theory of a permanent endowment with ability to speak heretofore unknown languages involves several objections. One is based on the tradition that the apostles in their missionary journeys were accompanied by men who acted for them as interpreters. The case of Mark acting as interpreter for Peter is particularly cited in this connection. 2 Another objection is based on the experience of Paul and Barnabas at Lystra, 3 where the missionaries were certainly unaware of what was being said "in the speech of Lycaonia," until their attention was attracted by the visible preparations for doing sacrifice in their honor.

To avoid these difficulties, it has been suggested that the Pentecostal endowment was not permanent but temporary, that the gift was not to facilitate the preaching of the gospel to the heathen world, but as a demonstration of the power of God. We deal in this case, then, with an epideiktic miracle. For the world of to-day an epideiktic miracle can have little value. For the world of the apostles, with its exceedingly primitive mental traits in spite of its veneer of civilisation, it is altogether

3 Cf. Eusebius: "Church History," III, xxxix, 15.

conceivable that an epideiktic miracle could possess an element of value. When we deal with the primitive church, it is well to remember, whether it be in matters ecclesiastical or psychological, we are dealing with primitive men.

The theory that the Pentecostal gift of tongues was not a miracle of speaking but a miracle of hearing found among some of the thinkers of the Christian church, an early and ready acceptance. Stress was laid upon verse 8 and particularly upon the word "hear" :

"And how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born?"

The miracle, according to this view, was wrought in the hearers, not in the speakers. This interpretation has nothing about it which either specially commends or condemns it. It does away with the historical difficulty involved in the theory of a permanent endowment with an ability to speak foreign languages. It involves, however, the vague objection that it may seem to be both artificial and contrary to the general sense of the entire passage.

Stress is laid by other students of the phenomenon upon the fact that the element of praise seems to be conspicuous in the account of the tongues at Pentecost :

"We do hear them speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God."

It is praise which forms the content of the tongues. It has even been suggested that definite ascriptions of praise might have constituted that which was said.

"We most naturally, I believe," writes Chase, 1 "picture the Apostles, like Zacharias in much earlier days when he was 'filled with the Holy Ghost' (Luke 1 : 67ft),

1 Chase, Frederic Henry: "The Credibility of the Book of the Acts of the Apostles," London, 1902, pp. 38-40.

IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH 21

as bursting forth into 'benedictions' drawn from the rich liturgical store of the Jewish Church — such as we find, for example, in that most ancient service of praise and prayer, the Eighteen Benedictions. But the Apostles spoke the praises of God in different languages. That is, plainly, the writer's meaning. Now there is evidence that the authorities in Palestine sanctioned the use of any language whatever in repeating the Shema, the Eighteen Benedictions, and the Grace at Meals. At other feasts, then, the Apostles had heard strangers of the Dispersion reciting these doxologies in the various languages most familiar to them. Now they in turn themselves, seeing before them Jewish worshippers from many countries, with memories supernaturally quickened, recall and rehearse in the different languages the accustomed words of praise.

"Here, too, St. Luke discerned a symbolical meaning. The new spiritual endowment of the Church inaugurates a reversal of the curse of separation. What we may term the very accidents accompanying the advent of the Spirit are a pledge of the catholicity of the Church — a sign that the Church should be the one home of men of every language and race (comp. Col. 3: 11). The historian recalls the language of the ancient story which told of the confusion of tongues (Gen. xi:7fl) ; and it is plain that his language in recording the events of Pentecost is moulded by the remembrance."

Similar to such a theory is the general notion frequently expressed that the words spoken were archaic, figurative and unusual, and for that reason might be called "other tongues."

Another interpretation has been found in regarding the Irkpais yX&aaais as figurative. The tongues are other tongues because they are now controlled by the Spirit of God. Before the bestowing of the gift, each man controlled his own tongue. After the bestowal, God controls the tongue directly. The tongue is independent of the will of man and is directly dependent upon the will of God.

So far, we have tended to ignore the fact that the New Testament contains references to the appearance of the gift of tongues, not only at Pentecost, but in connection with the conversion of Cornelius, in connection with the advent of the Holy Ghost at Ephesus, and in connection with the church at Corinth. If we eliminate the account of the tongues at Pentecost on the ground of a textual interpolation, or if we treat the Pentecostal narrative as the expression of a myth-making tendency, we have still failed to deal with the subsequent appearances of the same phenomena. We are forced then to a second explanation and a second theory for the interpreting of our data.

There is, however, very good reason to believe that the phenomena described as tongues in the New Testament are in their general nature everywhere substantially the same. By his express statement :

"And as I began to speak, the Holy Ghost fell on them, as on us at the beginning," x St. Peter seems to identify the manifestations at Csesarea with the Pentecostal occurrences. It requires a very arbitrary and artificial exegesis of Acts 19:6 to suppose that except from the point of view of grammatical construction eXaKow yXuaacus in that passage means something different from \a\ovvTcoy vXivsaoxr in Acts 10:46. In like manner also, we are guilty of an arbitrary and artificial exegesis, for which there is no foundation in the text or in logic, and no foundation in psychology, except the a priori desire on our part to substantiate a theory, when we insist that

IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH 23

XaXcoz> yXwo-077 or Xae\ii> 7X0)0- trats or y\6)(T(7aLs \a\cbv in First Corinthians 14 : 2, 4, and 5, means anythingfundamentally different from the accepted meaning of similar terms when they are used in the Acts.

In the Corinthian account, two definite characteristics of the tongues stand out clearly. The first is that the tongues are not a known or understandable language and require, that they may be used for edification, the gift of the interpretation of tongues. The second is that to the person not familiar with these phenomena and therefore not inclined to interpret the tongues on the basis of a theory that the tongues are spiritual in their nature, those speaking in the tongues seem to be mad.

The word used by St. Paul and translated as meaning mad is a form of a verb used frequently to signify Bacchic or prophetic frenzy. To the observer, unprejudiced by notions which had grown up in the Christian church as to the nature of the tongues, the behaviour of a person speaking with tongues was no different from the familiar conduct of the (xclvtls. It is of further significance that it was only in Corinth, a centre of Greek religious influence, that the tongues attained to so great a degree of prominence in the Christian church, as to demand extended discussion in an apostolic epistle. The association of ecstasy and immorality in the Corinthian church might here also be justly remarked.

Let us turn back to the account of events at Pentecost. The opening words of St. Peter's sermon are the familiar ones,

"For these are not drunken as ye suppose." *

The verb yedvano) here used in its passive voice to denote drunkenness, is a verb of connotations not unrelated to Bacchic frenzy. The charge of drunkenness at Pentecost may justly be regarded as of the same nature as the charge of madness at Corinth.

Consideration also must be given to the use of the verb XaX€«> in describing the speaking with tongues in connection with the Pentecostal phenomena at Csesarea, at Ephesus and at Corinth, \a\ew is an onomatopoetic word, the primary significance of which is found in the English equivalent "lalling." It is a word sometimes applied to birds, and may mean to chirp, or to twitter. It may be taken to mean to babble, or to chatter. The suggestion that the word y^&ava might be taken in the sense of an archaic language has already been noted. It has also been suggested that the use of the word connotes a special stress upon the organ of speech itself rather than upon speaking. The phrase XaXetv yX&aaais, using this latter sense of TXcoo-cra, may well be taken therefore to involve the notion of the disconnected, unmeaning use of the tongue for the making of sounds.

The word <t>wri used in Acts 2 :6, is also to be taken into consideration, and the possibility of translating the phrase in which it occurs as "when this became a noise," to be reckoned with. In other words, the terms used in the accounts of the tongues are words such as would suggest disorderly, rather than orderly speaking, and the uttering of sounds rather than words, or at best words which were not connected with other words in such a manner as to express coherent thought.

A further difficulty may here present itself, in the interpretation of the phenomenon at Pentecost and at Corinth on the same basis of a disorderly ecstasy. In the account of the Pentecostal gift, stress is laid upon the speaking in the languages of a number of countries. It has been suggested that some one of three languages, the East Aramaic, the West Aramaic, and the Greek would have been understandable in each of the countries

IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH 25

named. It is not unreasonable psychologically to suppose that the disorderly speaking at Pentecost included fragments of all three of these languages released by the subconscious minds of men speaking in a state of great excitement.

In view of considerations which will appear in our further discussion of the gift of tongues, and in accord also with such evidence as we have concerning the phenomena in New Testament times, it is possible to defend the position that the gift of tongues was and is similar to the ecstasies associated with the Greek mystery religions. It is possible to suggest that at the very beginning of the life of the Christian church, it was face to face with the struggle which it still must wage — the struggle against pagan ideas and pagan practices within its own doors.

Chapter II Some Forms Of Related Physiological And Psycho- Logical Phenomena

In patristic literature there is no considerable record of the manifestation of the gift of tongues. Irenseus believed that he was familiar with cases of genuinely miraculous appearances of some forms of the charismata, included in which he mentions the gift of prophecy and the gift of healing. He goes so far in the latter case as to write :

"Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and remained among us for many years." x

Whether we are justified in interpreting in this case the statement just quoted as meaning that Irenseus believed himself to have been an eye-witness to a resurrection or resurrections, or whether he writes on the authority of another, or whether he is simply here referring to the miracles of the apostolic age, we are not justified in concluding absolutely from the text.

In the following familiar passage, Irenasus refers to the gift of tongues :

"In like manner we do also hear many brethren in the Church, who possess prophetic gifts, and who through the Spirit of God do speak in all languages, as He used Himself also to speak." 2

1 Irenaeus: "Against Heresies," II: 32:4- 3 Same: V: 6:1.

Tertullian also refers to the charismata of his day and demands of Marcion as a supernatural attestation of his mission that he

"produce a psalm, a vision, a prayer — only let it be by the Spirit, in an ecstasy, that is, in a rapture, whenever an interpretation of tongues has occurred to him. . . ."

"Now all these signs of spiritual gifts," Tertullian adds, "are forthcoming from my side without any difficulty." x

From patristic times until the power of the reformation had made itself distinctly felt the gift of tongues is an almost forgotten phenomenon. The attention which the Reformation drew to the Scriptures is the reason for the reappearance of the gift. Men do not usually have the gift of tongues unless they know there is a gift of tongues. The revival of the Bible made also necessary in some minds a revival of states of mind and actions such as were those of the men who lived in Bible times and who were esteemed holy. During the long silence of those weary centuries there was evidence, however, of those psychological and physiological tendencies and actions which we find go hand in hand with the appearance of the gift in the history of the Corinthian church, or in the history of all of the more modern sects which we shall discuss. Simply because the ages preceding the Reformation were deficient in a Scriptural vocabulary we fail to find these phenomena described and classified as related to the gift of tongues.

Let us note the psychological evidences of states of mind analogous to the mental attitude of modern tongues people. There is ever present that superstitious reverence which is to be observed among the ignorant and primitive for those who speak in other tongues. Those who spoke in other tongues are eminent in the common

1 Tertullian: "Against Marcion." V: 8.

mind of the Middle Ages either for their saintly lives, or for the fact of their servitude to the devil. To be learned seems to connote a gift, either of God or of the devil. St. Francis Xavier and other of the great missionary saints are said to have been able to speak "the languages of many different nations without having studied those languages." The knowledge even of letters was sometimes bestowed by a miracle upon the saintly. Matthew Paris, writing of the rise to fame of St. Hildegarde, in the year 1240, notes that she was first a recluse, and afterwards an abbess — a lady of remarkable sanctity — into whom, in her lifetime, "during a sleep of four days' continuance, the Lord instilled the spirit of prophecy, and a complete knowledge of letters, during thepontificate of Pope Alexander." *

On the other hand., the scholars, the alchemists, and their children, the scientists of the Renaissance,, were looked upon as being under a special compact with the devil, from whom came their mysterious knowledge of other tongues. Men like Robert of Lincoln and Michael Scott, 2 both eminent through the thirteenth century for a knowledge of Greek and Hebrew in the one case, and Arabic in the other, were popularly regarded as sorcerers. So also were Raymond Lulli and Arnold de Villeneuve, both eminent linguistic scholars of the fourteenth century, popularly feared as men skilled in sorcery. Robert of Lincoln, another of the alchemists, is said to "have made a head of brass expressly constructed in such a manner as to be able to answer such questions as were propounded , to it, and to foretell future events."

Roger Bacon was also reputed to be in league withl the powers of darkness, and to have made with Friar

1 Paris, Matthew: "English History from the Year 1235 to 1273." Translated| from the Latin by J. A. Giles (in the Bohn Library). London, 1852-4. Vol. I, p. 317-

2 Godwin, William: "Lives of the Necromancers." London, 1834; pp. 252- 3-4, 263, 282.

Bungay a brazen head which also spoke when its makers were asleep, tired out with their long labours. The story of the speaking brazen head is one of the familiar stories of the Middle Ages, and the making of such a head is attributed to many great men of learning. But not only could these men who, in faith and never-stinted labour, lighted the torch, the blazing flame of which at last illumined the morning sky of the Renaissance and the Reformation, speak the ancient languages, but such was their power that they could cause even the inanimate to speak. 1

Fluency of speech and the speaking of mysterious words are often looked upon as a sign of possession by an evil spirit. One of the charges brought against Elizabeth Barton, the Maid of Kent, famous in the annals of sixteenth century witchcraft, was based upon her speaking in what was described as a manner above her usual discourse. Similar charges were common against witches and the bewitched.

The ability to speak other languages was viewed sometimes not only as an evidence of a Satanic possession, but as a possession analogous to a distemper, which could sometimes be remedied by the use of drugs.