Secrets of the Balkans; seven years of a diplomatist's life in the storm centre of Europe

Foreword

BLOW struck in the Balkans, as of steel upon flint; a spark, a flame — and then, the holocaust of the world!

But the blow came from without; the hand of tyranny was raised against a people whose freedom had been bought with their own blood.

The World War began in the Balkans, yet its origin was in the hearts of the unscrupulous autocrats whose ruthless ambition knew neither justice nor limit; who counted the subjection of a free people merely as the first move in the game to win commercial and political supremacy, and in the end, to dominate the world. Serbia was only a pawn, to be swept aside as the first obstacle in the path of world conquest.

This, then, is the story of the Balkanic Nations, from the earliest times, dealing briefly with the many centuries of invasion, oppression and continual fighting for liberty, and dwelling in detail on the heroic struggle in the great cataclysm, when their lands were again coveted as spoils of war.

In the narration is revealed intimate and positive knowledge of cause and effect, events and conditions, gained in seven years of constant and close association with rulers and subjects, in the full confidence that is born only of companionship in affliction.

The work is intended to shed light on the causes and results of the world's most monstrous crime, in the hope that the knowledge will help in the consummation of the great ideal of all civilization — a Peace on Earth which shall endure until the end

of time.

Charles J. Vopicka

Chicago, Illinois July, 1921

I -^ii

CHAPTER I PAGE Early History of the Balkan Nations 1

CHAPTER H Appointed Minister to the Bali^lans — Assuming Charge OF the Legation — Receptions and Ceremonies . . 18

CHAPTER HI Some Intimate Glimpses of Royalty — The First War Cloud 24

CHAPTER IV Early Serbian Triumphs on Battlefields — Ravages of Sickness 35

CHAPTER V Proof of Plot between Kaiser Wilhelm and Wife of Archduke Ferdinand 46

CHAPTER VI Condition of Prisoners of War in Serbia .... 51

CHAPTER VII Bulgaria Enters the War — Serbian Retreat — King Peter's Heroism 63

CHAPTER VIII Last Days of Queen Elisabeth — Cause of Bulgarian Attitude 72

CHAPTER IX

ROUMANIA DURING PERIOD OF NEUTRALITY — DECLARATION

OF War 78

CHAPTER X RouMANiA Enters War on the Side of the Allies — Conditions of Unpreparedness 89

vii viii CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER XI PAGE

Buried German Explosives Found in Roumanian Capital — Plot to Inoculate Horses and Cattle 98

CHAPTER XII

Bucharest Taken by Army of Central Powers— Rigorous Rule of General von Mackensen . . .105

CHAPTER XIII An American Reporter's Views— The American Legation Ousted 115

CHAPTER XIV Berlin Admits Blunder — Back to America — Return VIA Orient and Russia 125

CHAPTER XV At Jassy, Temporary Capital of Roumania — Sanitation Problems — Russian Opportunity Lost 132

CHAPTER XVI Russian Revolution Disrupts Plans and Deprives Roumania of Assistance 144

CHAPTER XVII Defection of Russians on Roumanian Front — Ukrainia Declares Independence 156

CHAPTER XVIII Peace Terms Imposed on Roumania — Ratification Urged by Central Powers 168

CHAPTER XIX Czecho-Slovaks in Russia — Valorous Deeds and Invaluable Aid to Allies 180

CHAPTER XX

New Roumanian Cabinet — Peace Terms Depriving Country of Most Valuable Resources .... 187

CHAPTER XXI Union of Bessarabia and Roumania — Ukrainia Being Germanized 195

CONTENTS (Continued) ix

CHAPTER XXII PAGE

CHAPTER XXIII Roumanian Elections Controlled by Germans — Intrigue AGAINST Crown 217

CHAPTER XXIV

Crops Much Less Than Food Requirements — Elopement OF Crown Prince 232

CHAPTER XXV

Germans Offer Concessions to Hasten Ratification OF Peace Treaty 245

CHAPTER XXVI

Advice to Bessarabians — Securing Justice for Jews in Roumania 259

CHAPTER XXVII King Ferdinand Cables President Wilson — Cessation OF All Hostilities 274

CHAPTER XXVIII

Proclamation in Bucharest of General Berthelot — Great Danger of Famine 283

CHAPTER XXIX Distressing Shortage of Food — Healing Breach between Allies and Roumania — Trade Development 297

CHAPTER XXX

Sketches of King Ferdinand and Queen Marie — Other Roumanian Patriots 309

CHAPTER XXXI Improbability of Future European Wars .... 320

CHAPTER XXXII Russia's Great Sacrifices and Invaluable Aid — Her Future 325

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Charles J. Vopicka Frontispiece

King Peter of Serbia 1

Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria 6

King Carol of Roumania 10

Roumanian Residence in Bucharest 14

American Legation in Bucharest 14

Royal Palace in Sofia 18

The Black Mosque in Sofia 18

Junction of the Sava and Danube Rivers in Belgrade 22

Fortress in Belgrade — View from the Outside . . 22

Czarina Eleonora of Bulgaria 26

On the Way to Samakov, Bulgaria 30

Queen Elisabeth— "Carmen Sylva" of Roumania . 34

Main Street in Belgrade 38

Street Scene in Belgrade 38

N. Pachich, Prime Minister of Serbia 42

American Consulate at Nish 46

Serbian Metropolitan and Bishop on the Doorsteps OF Their House in Nish, with Minister Vopicka,

His Wife and Daughter 46

Scene near Valjevo, Serbia, after the Battle between Austro-Hungarians and Serbians .... 50

Graves of Serbian Soldiers between Kraljevo and

Cacak in Serbia 50

Dr. Jicinsky, Commander Gaintch, American Minister Vopicka, Dr. Richard Strong, Colonel Sola, Dr.

Lebel Korovic, Captain Billand 55

Austro-Hungarian Officers, Prisoners of War in

Nish 59

Hills and Fields in Gramada, Serbia 62

Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners at Nish .... 62

xi xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

PACE

Detention Camp for Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners

AT Gramada 66

Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners Transported in

Railroad Cars in Serbia 66

Austro-Hungarian Officers, Prisoners of War, Taking

Promenade in Their Park 70

Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners in Nish .... 70 Park for Austro-Hungarian Officers, Prisoners of

War, Nish 74

Palace in Which Austro-Hungarian Officers, Prisoners OF War, Were Interned 74

International Commission Examining Kitchen for the

Austro-Hungarian and German War Prisoners . . 78 Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners Working on the

Railroad in Gramada 78

German and Austro-Hungarian War Prisoners in

Bucharest 82

Royal Palace in Sinaia, Roumania 86

Room in Royal Palace at Sinaia 86

Street Group of Orientals 90

Flood of Lepenitza River in Serbia 90

A Serbian Porter 94

Market Place in Nish 94

Roumanian King Addressing People 98

Mountain Horn Blowers in Roumania 98

Serbian Peasants 102

Peasant Girl from Prahova, Roumania 102

Roumanian Wedding 106

Guests at the Wedding 106

At the Baths in Tekirkiol 110

Bulgarian Beauties 110

Monuments on Tombs of Serbian Soldiers . . . .114

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) xiii

Monuments to Serbian Soldiers Who Fell on the Battlefield, Erected in Their Villages . . . .114

Fortress Hotin in Bessarabia (Fifteenth Century) . 118

German Prisoners in Roumania 118

Scene at a Railway Station in Serbia 122

Roumanian Peasant Bride and Groom 122

Turkish Mosque in Skopelje (Uskub), Macedonia . . 126

Palace of the Metropolitan in Cernovitz, Bukowina 126

Prince Regent Alexander of Serbia in Conference WITH Officers on the Battlefield 130

Railway Station in Serbia 130

Vasil Radoslavoff, Prime Minister of Bulgaria . . 134

King Boris of Bulgaria 139

Prince Cyril of Bulgaria 139

Princess Eudoxia of Bulgaria 143

Princess Nadeschda of Bulgaria 143

French Hospital at Vrnjanka Banja, Serbia . . . 146 Arrival of Schlepp No. 229 Loaded with Flour for

THE American Red Cross in Belgrade 146

Family Meeting at Sofia 150

A Turkish House in Macedonia 150

Turkish Palace at Bardovac, Used for War Prisoners 154

Serbian Fortress at Belgrade 154

On the Road to Knjashevatz, Serbia 158

Tombs of Serbian Soldiers 158

Turkish Mosque at Nish 162

Turkish Mosque at Uskub, Macedonia 166

Wall around the Prison in which Austro-Hungarian Prisoners Were Interned in Bardovac, Macedonia 166

At the Funeral of Queen Elisabeth 170

Prince Nicolai of Roumania in the Parade on May 10 170 At the American Consulate in Belgrade . . . .174 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

PAGE

Talking with English Lieutenant Who Was at the Head of the English War Prisoners' Camp in PhilippopoLis, Bulgaria 174

Minister Vopicka, Consul General Murphy, Colonel Yates and Captain Klepal, Visiting Camp of English War Prisoners at Plovdivo, Philippopolis . .178

Detention Camp of English War Prisoners at Philippopolis 178

Royal Palace at Sinaia, Roumania 182

King Ferdinand I of Roumania 186

TiLEAjEN Valley — View of Monastery 190

Room in the Royal Palace in Sinaia 190

Diplomats at the Funeral of King Carol of Roumania 194

Roumanian Cottage 194

Jon. I. C. Bratianu 198

Prince B. Stirbey 202

Take Jonescu 206

Nicu Filipescu 210

Pavilion at the Race Track in Bucharest . . . .214 The Pavilion of the Queen, in Constanza, Roumania . 214

Roumanian Street Peddlers 218

Fortress in Brassov, Transylvania 222

Bridge over Danube River at Cerna Voda, Roumania, Destroyed by the German Army 222

Traveling on the Railroads in Roumania during the War 226

Town of Campulung in Walachia 226

Roumanian General Staff 230

Monastery at Tismana, Roumania — Church from Fourteenth Century 230

Minister Vopicka Addressing German War Prisoners in Bucharest 234

Monastery in Putna, Bukowina, now Part of Roumania 234

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued) xv

Episcopalian Palace and Church of the Monastery

AT CURTEA DE ARGESH IN ROUMANIA 238

BiSTRiTZA Valley in Walachia 238

Alexander Marghiloman 242

Mihail Pherekyde 246

Alexander Constantinescu 250

General Averescu 254

Small Steamer " Rannenfjord, " Which Brought Minister VopiCKA FROM Norway to America .... 258

Jassy, Moldavia 258

The Four Allied Ministers at Jassy 263

Reception by King Ferdinand I of Roumania, of American Minister Vopicka, Military Attache' Colonel Yates, and Colonel Anderson of the American Red Cross, on the Steps of the Royal Palace in Jassy . . 266

Princess Elisabeth of Roumania with Prominent Roumanian Ladies as Hospital Attendants at Her Hospital in Jassy, with Minister Vopicka and Colonel Anderson of the American Red Cross . . 271

Queen Marie at the Canteen of the American Red Cross in Jassy with Colonel Anderson 274

Members of the American Red Cross Commission, and Doctors and Nurses for Roumania, at Jassy . . 274

First Trip of Minister Vopicka to Address the Russian Soldiers near Galatz, Roumania, with Roumanian Minister A. Constantinescu, American Military Attache Colonel Yates, Colonel Glasgow and Major Flexner, Members of the American Red Cross 278

Russian Military Headquarters at Ajud, Roumania . 278

Minister Vopicka Speaking to Russian Soldiers in SuccAVA 282

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

PAGE

Minister Vopicka Addressing Russian Soldiers . . 282 Scene on the Way to the Trenches Occupied by Russian Troops in Roumania 282

View of Kishenev in Bessarabia 286

SiBiu, or Hermannstadt, in Transylvania 286

General Grigorescu 290

King and Queen of Roumania, with Generals and

Ministers, in Transylvania 294

Members of American Food Commission in Roumania 294

Czecho-Slovak War Prisoners Who Ca?^e to Roumania from Russia, Waiting for a Chance to Fight for the

Allies 299

Petroleum Wells in the Valley of Campina, Roumania 302

Petroleum Refinery at Campina 302

T. G. Masaryk, President of Czecho-Slovakia . . . 306 Visit of the President of the Czecho-Slovak Republic

TO Roumania 306

Queen Marie and Princess Illiana among the Orphans 310 Princess Illiana of Roumania 310

On the Diplomatic Platform, at the Celebration of May 10 IN Bucharest 315

On the Reviewing Stand on May 10 in Bucharest . 319

Queen Marie of Roumania 322

WooDROW Wilson 326

Decorations Accorded Mr. Vopicica— Serbian Order of the White Eagle 1st Class — Roumanian Order OF Mare Cruce 330

King Peter of Serbia

T

CHAPTER I

EARLY HISTORY OF THE BALKAN NATIONS

O understand fully the Balkan situation at the outset of the World War, it is necessary to know the history of the several states through their many centuries of almost continual bloody strife.

The Balkans have been termed 'The Hotbed of European Politics." To one not conversant with the facts, this might seem to imply that the inhabitants of this area were natural trouble makers; that all the strife originated here, and kept the peaceful nations outside in a constant state of anxiety.

But the truth is that, owing to its natural resources and its geographical position, the Balkan Peninsula has ever been a tempting prize, to be won by conquest, and it has been the victim of more invasions, and consequent devastation, than any other civilized region on earth.

The peoples of the different states have at times quarrelled and fought with each other, and occasionally one took a slice of the other's territory, but in the main their wars have been waged with invaders who sought to enslave them, or with their conquerors, whose yoke of slavery they bravely threw off.

During very many of the last fifteen hundred years they were engaged in war, but almost always they were fighting for freedom.

To the vicissitudes of fortune through which they have passed, from peace and plenty to utter misery, the physical hardiness and indomitable spirit of the present day temperamental Balkanic peoples may be ascribed.

The Balkan Peninsula is situated in southeastern Europe, touching the Adriatic, yEgean and Black Seas. Balkan is a Turkish word, applied to a range of mountains. This range, terminating at the Black Sea, is really an extension of the Carpathians. Generally the country is hilly, with an abundance of water supplied to the fertile valleys by rivers and many small streams. In early times there were the provinces of Paunonia, Dalmatia, Thrace, Moesia and Dacia, the latter comprising modem Walachia and Transylvania. These provinces were united by Emperor Trajan, and up to the end of the third century were benefited by the influences of Roman civilization.

During the reign of Constantine the Great, in the fourth century, the Huns came from Asia and settled on the European shores of the Black Sea. Later on, the empire was divided, the western portion being Latin and the eastern part Greek. By both, the Albanians were driven to their present territory. At times, the Christians on the peninsula waged war on each other. In the fifth century, the Huns occupied the present Hungarian territory, frequently raiding and devastating sections of the Balkan Peninsula. In the year 453 the Huns returned to Asia, but in the latter part of the century they again invaded the Balkans. As a result of the constant invasions and warfare, the Balkan inhabitants lapsed into a state of semi-barbarism.

In the sixth century, the Slavs first appeared, coming from what is now Galicia in Poland. They were a peaceful people, with little organization and no important leaders, but with them came hordes of the Avars, who were a type similar to the Huns, and equally dreaded. But early in the eighth century the Avars disappeared, and the Slavs spread out all over the country. Those who entered Macedonia and Greece lost their identity, and the few who remained in Dacia transmitted to the present Roumanian language its words of Slavic origin. With the expulsion of the Avars, Greek settlers appeared and later these and the Slavs intermarried.

The exact date of the advent of the Serbians in the Balkan Peninsula is uncertain, but they were known to be in the Byzantine provinces in the year 637. The first Serbian state was established at the end of the eighth century under the leader Zupan of Zagorye, under whose grandson the limits of Serbia were considerably extended. After his death, Serbia lost her independence and became part of Bulgaria under Kings Boris First, Simeon, and Samuel. After the death of the latter, in 1018, Serbia became part of Byzantium, and remained under Greek control until the latter part of the twelfth century, when Stephan Nemanya united the Serbians in revolt. He founded the Nemanyich dynasty, which ruled until 1371. His son Stephan was proclaimed the first Serbian king, and a later descendant was King Stephan Dushan Nemanyich, who united in one kingdom Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria and part of Macedonia. He was called Emperor of the Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbians.

He made civil and criminal laws,, and the empire generally prospered during his reign, but after his sudden death in 1355, dissension arose, and the great empire was divided under different rulers. King Lazar, of the Nemanyich dynasty, who ruled the northern portion, attempted to unite all the neighboring countries in a great drive against the Turks. But they were disastrously defeated by the Turks under Sultan Murad First, on the field of Kosovo, June 15, 1389, both leaders losing their lives.

Serbian independence continued only until 1459, when the Turks became masters of the entire Balkan Peninsula, and thereafter, for over three hundred years, the Serbians and other conquered nations were treated with great cruelty and oppression. They had no rights or privileges whatever and were forced to pay heavy tribute.

The Turkish oppression became unbearable, and the first steps to throw off the yoke were taken by a number of the young men of Serbia, who organized in bands and made their haven in the mountains. These were known as the Hajduks (Hydooks). Whenever instances of Turkish cruelty became known to them, they were swift and terrible in their vengeance, and they became so greatly feared that tyrannous actions ceased in many places. Through them, the Serbian church and the Violonists (Gooslars), the memory of former Serbian independence was kept alive.

Among the Turks, the real fighters were the Janissaries. These were young men who had been stolen in childhood from Christian parents, and had been reared as Turks and given only military education and training. Under Turkish guidance they were made cruel and merciless to the utmost. Only the diabolical Turkish mind could conceive of making fiends of men in order to turn them unwittingly against their own flesh and blood.

Under the orders of their Dahees, or Captains, the Janissaries set about the execution of the most prominent Serbians. In one week, the heads of one hundred and fifty leading men were sent to the Janissaries' headquarters in Belgrade, and very few in that section were able to escape. Among those who did escape at this time was Georges Petrovitch, called Kara Georges, or

Georges the Black, the leader of the Hajduks living in the village of Popola. All able-bodied men who could gain the mountain retreats were organized in 1804 under the leadership of Kara Georges, and descending on the Janissaries, they speedily put them to death. In 1805, the Serbians won a decisive battle with the Turks, and in 1807, Serbia was free, from Drina to Timok.

Kara Georges at times was as violent as he was brave. He declared to the Serbians who sought his leadership that he would kill anyone who disobeyed him, but the answer was that they wanted just that kind of a man.

To the unspeakable woe of Serbia, the English and French did not approve of her struggle for independence, and they inflicted great damage on the Serbian revolutionists in a great battle at Cuprije. In their desperate dilemma, the Serbians turned to Russia, and were there promised support, but the Russians being obliged to make peace in Bucharest in 1812, the unfortunate Serbians were again left friendless.

Then Georges the Black was stricken with typhus, and the Turks attacked Serbia on three sides and gained an easy victory. Later Kara Georges left his country in order to consult with the Russian Czar, but he was detained by the military commandant at Varazdin, and therefore failed to see the Czar. In October, 1813, complete defeat of the Serbians was accomplished, and from that time to the end of January, 1815, Belgrade was a shambles, with a multitude of Serbians the victims.

After the departure of Georges the Black and other prominent men, Serbia was bereft of all her capable leaders, save one. This was Miloch Obrenovitch, who declared to his people that he would not forsake them in any circumstances. But with the Turks, Miloch dissembled. He came to Belgrade to offer the submission of the Serbians, and was accepted by the Turks as the Serbian representative. On the surface he kept everything peaceful for eighteen months, but at the same time he was secretly organizing the Serbians.

In 1815 he led the Serbians successfully against the Turks in several battles, and in 1816 Serbia was granted autonomy. Immediately after this, Kara Georges returned, which fact was reported by Veyvoda Miloch to the Turkish Vizier in Belgrade, who at once demanded Georges' head. Soon after, Kara Georges was killed while asleep, and some of the Serbians accused Miloch of the murder. This started a feud between the two families of Obrenovitch and Georgevitch, which resulted in the assassination of Prince Michael Obrenovitch in 1868, and of King Alexander, the last Obrenovitch, in 1903.

Veyvoda Miloch made an excellent leader. He was a good statesman, diplomat and business man. Under his rule the peasants were given land, and allowed to keep what they occupied. In 1817 he was given the title of Prince of Serbia, which rank was approved by the Russians and the Turks. He had a serious dispute with Russia regarding the form of government, Miloch claiming that the authority should be vested in him and in the Skuptstina, or Parliament, under the constitution which he granted the people, but as he had proclaimed this constitution without first obtaining the consent of Russia and the Sublime Porte, he was obliged to withdraw it, and Russia and Turkey substituted a new consitution under which the power was vested in a senate consisting of seventeen members, who were controlled by the Porte. His opposition to this made enemies, who,

Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria with the assistance of Russia, compelled him to abdicate in 1839. His son, Obrenovitch III, succeeded him, but in a short time he was also compelled to leave the country.

In 1847, Alexander Karageorgevitch, son of Georges the Black, was called to the throne. During his reign, Serbia was at peace with the Porte and with Austria. He incurred the enmity of Russia after the defeat of that country in the Crimean war. Russia expected Serbia to engage Turkey in war, but the Senate voted against it, and from that time, Austrian influence in Serbia was stronger than Russian. But Russian machinations succeeded in turning the Serbian people against Prince Alexander as an Austrophile, and he was deposed in 1858.

Miloch Obrenovitch was then called from exile to the throne, but he died in a short time, and his son, Michael Obrenovitch III, was again made ruler. He succeeded in having all the Turkish fortresses in Serbia turned over to the Serbians, having gained the approval of the European Powers, which removed the last vestige of Turkish control in Serbia. Less than a year later he was murdered near Belgrade, and while it was charged the deed was done by friends of the Karageorgevitch dynasty, no proof was secured.

As he left no heirs, Milan, the son of Prince Michael, took the throne as Obrenovitch. Being only fourteen years old, a vice-regent acted for him. During the viceregency, two political parties were formed, the Progressionist and the Radical. In 1871, when Prince Milan became of age, he sided with the Radicals, but in 1880 he turned to the Progressionists. In 1876 he declared war against Turkey, but was defeated. This war caused Czar Alexander II to proclaim war against Turkey.

After the fall of Plevna, the Serbian army joined the

Russians, Bulgarians and Roumanians, and compelled the Turks to evacuate nearly all the occupied territory in Serbia. When peace was established, the Russians were unwilling to allow Serbia's claims, and at the Berlin congress advised Serbia to confer with Austria about them. It was therefore through Austria that Serbia obtained this desired territory.

Thereafter, Prince Milan ignored Russia and became a real Austrophile, spending more of his time in Vienna than in Belgrade. Against popular opinion he started war with Bulgaria, but was unsuccessful. This, coupled with his treatment of his wife, Natalie, led to his enforced abdication in 1889, in favor of his son, Alexander, then thirteen years old.

At seventeen, Alexander declared himself of age and began to reign. But he soon lost the good will of both Russia and Austria, and after he married the beautiful widow of an engineer, eight years older than himself, he had few friends left. June 11, 1903, he and his wife were brutally murdered in the palace at Belgrade by a body of officers. After his death, the National Assembly selected as king, Peter Karageorgevitch, grandson of the first leader against the Turks, who is the present ruler.*

The Bulgarians came from Eastern Asia in the fifth century, mingling with the Huns up to the seventh century, and later with the Avars and the Slavs. They first settled on the Volga River, but being progressive and desirous of expansion, they moved southwest and created a new settlement on the north of the Black Sea, which was known as Black Bulgaria.

Early in the seventh century, under Prince Kubrat,

*King Peter died in August, 1921.

their territory was extended from the Volga to the Danube, but after his death it was divided, his two sons each ruling a portion. One division was established in Paunonia until the arrival of the Magyars, toward the end of the ninth century, and the other for a time in Bessarabia, whence the majority later moved south, although some remained, and their descendants live there at the present time.

In 660, Aspanikh, one of Kubrat's sons, captured Varna from the Greeks, and in 679 his territory extended from the Danube to the Balkan range. In the subsequent fusion with the Slavs, the original Bulgarian language was lost, being superseded by the present tongue, which is almost wholly Slavonic, with the inclusion of some Turkish words.

From the beginning of their occupation of this territory, there was enmity between them and the Greeks, and for two hundred years war was frequently waged between the two countries, but when the Arabs attempted seizure of Constantinople, they combined in successful resistance to the invaders. At the end of the eighth century, the Bulgarians, under Krum, overcame the Avars. Krum was then made king, and under his rule the Bulgars north and south of the Danube were united in one kingdom, law and order established, commerce and agriculture stimulated, and the country made prosperous. In 809 he wrested Sofia from the Greeks, and that city is the Bulgarian capital to-day.

Christianity was adopted by the Bulgars imder King Boris, who endeavored to establish a church independent of the Greeks. For a while the country was under the sway of Rome, due to the efforts of two bishops sent to Bulgaria by Pope Nicolas I. Under

Adrian II, the next ruler, the church was directly under the Bishop of Constantinople.

King Boris united the different Slavic tribes so that his kingdom included parts of Macedonia, Serbia and Roumania. His son Simeon retained all this, and added to it Thrace and the remainder of Macedonia, and under his successor. King Samuel, the kingdom attained its greatest expanse. This is called the golden period of Bulgarian histor^^

Bulgaria was conquered during the reign of the Greek emperor Basil II, and for one hundred and fifty years the country was under Byzantine domination. In 1186, under Czars Assen and Kaloyan, Bulgaria revolted and regained her independence. Conditions steadily improved, and under Assen II, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, Bulgaria was prosperous and happy. But after his death, she was conquered by Serbia and annexed to that country. With the disastrous defeat of Serbia on the field of Kosovo the Turks came into control, and in 1393 all the Balkanic states were under the tyrannous dominion of Turkey.

In common with the other Balkan peoples, the lot of the Bulgarians was misery beyond expression. Conditions of the infamous Turkish rule were known to the European nations, but for centuries no effort was made to halt or even mitigate the horrible cruelty. This apparent apathy was due to political reasons, each nation fearing possible advantage to another through territorial changes, and no such change could be made satisfactory to all the political powers concerned.

So the Turks were allowed to pursue their policy of annihilation of all who would not adopt the Turkish faith in place of their own, and unhappy Bulgaria suf-

King Carol of Roumania fered without hope until 1877, when Czar Ferdinand II of Russia made war on Turkey for the liberation of the Balkan nations. With the Russian army were those of Roumania and Bulgaria, and after the fall of Plevna, the Serbians also joined. Turkey was forced to capitulate, and Bulgaria was declared an independent state, with territory located between Constantinople, Adrianople, Chalcidice and Salonika.

But again there was dissatisfaction, through fear of the ascendancy of Russian influence in the Balkans; and other nations, England and Germany particularly, decreed that northern and southern Bulgaria should have autonomy under a Christian governor appointed by the Porte. Macedonia was left to Turkey, and Dobrudja given to Roumania.

After the liberation of Bulgaria, the first ruler, elected in 1879, was Prince Alexander of Battenberg, nephew of the Empress of Russia. In September, 1885, he proclaimed the union of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, an act of great popularity with the people but not approved by Russia and Austria. Influenced by these latter countries, King Milan of Serbia made war on Bulgaria, the pretext being that Serbia was entitled to share in Bulgaria's territorial aggrandizement. But even the Serbians were not in sympathy with the attitude of their ruler, and they were easily defeated. They could not understand why people of the same religion should fight.

On August 21, 1886, some officers who were Russophiles forced Prince Alexander to resign, and they conducted him to Reni, in Bessarabia, whence he proceeded to Lemberg. But many Bulgarians objected, and a revolution headed by Stambulov, a prominent diplomat, resulted in returning Prince Alexander to

Sofia on September 3, when he received a great ovation. However, Czar Alexander III of Russia forced him to abdicate, and September 7, 1886, he left Bulgaria for the last time, dying in 1893.