Essentials in education

Foreword

The purpose of this book is to present to teachers and all persons interested in education a discussion of some of the fundamental factors in public education in the light of current educational practice. The point of view is distinctly practical. No panaceas are offered and no revolutions in current methods are proposed. While the form of statement may seem dogmatic in some instances, it is hoped that this is not the case to any greater extent than would be inevitable in presenting the convictions of the writer as an outgrowth of twenty-five years of public school work.

Many of the chapters are upon subjects which have been presented many times by the writer in talks and addresses to teachers and the general public. This accounts for the informal nature of many statements. It is hoped that the point of view here presented will be helpful to teachers and others interested in education in applying to the solution of present problems the conclusions obtained from a long administrative experience.

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. Murray A. Dalman for help in preparing the references and for the illustration of the statistical methods used in Chapter 13.

The Author

Contents

Chapter Page

I Teaching as a Profession i

Choosing an occupation difficult — Definition of profession — Characteristics which occupation should possess — Nature of teaching as an occupation — Modern point of view — Financial aspects — Specialization in education — Rewards — Disadvantages — The spirit of the teacher.

Chapter I

Choosing an occupation difficult. — The present complexity of society makes the choosing of an occupation more difficult than ever before. The division of labor and the high degree of specialization has greatly increased the number of occupations. Information in regard to these many lines of work is not always available so that the possibilities of a particular field may not be known. There is great need of reliable vocational information so that all these essential factors might be available.

In addition to the complexity of society there is the added difficulty of the uncertainty as to one's powers and tastes. It is often impossible to tell whether or not you would like a given kind of work until you try it. The testimony given by those who are already engaged in a certain occupation is not always reliable since people are prone to> see the difficult and objectionable sides of their own calling.

I

Broadly speaking, there may be said to be a line of demarcation between business and the professions. In business life commercial success is the chief goal together with the power and standing which go with financial attainment. In the professions the idea of service to humanity is chiefly emphasized and the thought of personal gain is largely ignored.

Definition of profession. — A profession has been defined as an occupation that properly involves a liberal education or its equivalent and mental rather than manual labor; also any calling or occupation involving special mental attainments or special discipline as editing, acting, engineering, authorship.* This definition places emphasis upon the preparation and qualities needed in order to follow a profession. It implies special training and the development of intellectual qualities of a superior kind. The emphasis upon this point is significant because in the discussions about teaching as a profession the thought is usually directed toward the kind of work involved rather than the preparation and fitness of the worker. Teaching is a profession because it requires special preparation of an intellectual sort, and as the requirements for teaching continue to increase, the status of teaching as a profession will be correspondingly elevated.

*See Standard Dictionary.

Any occupation that is to be satisfactory must satisfy one's sense of values. It must seem to be so valuable that one can afford to spend his life in following it. Unless it have this characteristic of worthwhileness the occupation will be the merest drudgery.

Characteristics which occupation should possess. — Some of the elements which enter into the question of occupation are — first, adequate financial return. The income must be sufficient for a livelihood and for at least a slight margin besides. It is important that one's work should bring in enough to support one's self and family and also to accumulate a reserve for future needs. Unless the remuneration is sufficient to cover these real needs of life, one can not feel that the occupation is permanently satisfying.

The second element in the occupation is that it must furnish opportunity for sufficient recognition of. one's ability. A certain amount of success is necessary to satisfy us that our powers are being helpfully employed.

Third, there must be a consciousness of service to the world. No one would long be satisfied to perform a piece of work which he felt was perfectly useless even though he were well paid for it. John Ruskin said in 185 1 : "In order that people may be happy in their work these three things are needed.

They must be fit for it ; they must not do too much of it; and they must have a sense of success in it." This is as true to-day as it was when the words were spoken.

Nature of teaching as an occupation. — Let us examine some of the principal characteristics of the work of teaching in order to determine how far it fulfills the above requirements. The answer to this question will very largely determine the desirability of teaching as a profession.

One of the most distinctive features of teaching is that it places a teacher in the attitude of a leader and guide to minds less informed and less developed. This fact makes a strong appeal to many natures. It is an opportunity which should not be lightly regarded. It is a wonderful privilege to act as the light which illuminates the world for the youthful traveler and which accompanies him on his first excursions from the darkness of ignorance to the new world of truth and beauty.

No one can do the work of a true teacher without having a sympathy and a liking for children. The true teacher must like children and enjoy being with them and must enter into their interests and activities with true insight and friendly appreciation. If the companionship of children be not agreeable to you and if their concerns seem uninteresting and trivial, by all means seek some other vocation for you will not be happy in teaching.

The work of teaching possesses variety. Each new lesson brings new problems. The necessity of meeting the active minds of a group of children each day is a continual incentive to intellectual activity. While the routine of the schoolroom may sometimes seem like drudgery, the real work of teaching is constantly new and fresh. It furnishes a constant stimulus to the mind of the teacher and prevents stagnation and mental lethargy.

Furthermore teaching encourages inventiveness and initiative. It constantly invites to new efforts of approach to subject-matter and clearer methods of elucidation. No other kind of work affords greater variety than this.

And, finally, the work of teaching is idealistic because it deals with the never-ending search for truth and for the highest truth. It ever seeks to mold the unfolding mind in accordance with the finest ideals and to furnish the truest principles of conduct as a basis of all behavior.

There are numerous other characteristics of a teacher's work, but the above are sufficiently indicative of its nature to enable any one to determine whether he would be suited to work in this field. Any person who possesses the five qualities enumerated — intellectual leadership, love for children, appreciation of the variety of the work, delight in the use of initiative and the pursuit of the ideal — will enjoy the work of teaching and will probably be successful in it ; but lacking any one of these qualities, both enjoyment and success would be very doubtful.

Modern point of view. — As a corollary to the above characteristics of teaching, consider for a moment the modern point of view of the work of public education. The child study movement has changed the emphasis in teaching from the subject-matter to the child. Formerly the information which was important to the adult world was presented in limited quantities to children without much adaptation to their interests or capacity, but a truer understanding of the laws of mental growth has resulted in making the child the center of the educational process and in adapting to his needs all the materials and processes of education. The working out of this point of view is far from complete and the attempt to perfect the means and materials from the psychological point of view is a constant incentive to the true teacher.

In addition to the better understanding of child nature and its needs there has also been an awakening to the relationship of education and the sociological and civic requirements of a democracy. The child must not only perfect his own powers but he must perfect them to the end that society may be served thereby. The relating of educational processes to the needs of the world is one of the most fundamental educational problems. In the solution of it the teacher may feel certain that a tremendous contribution is being made to the needs of the nation and the service of society. No field of work could be more vital and fundamental.

Financial aspects. — But what can be said of the material side of the work of teaching? The present wide-spread discussion of teachers' salaries has emphasized the financial aspects of teaching to a greater extent than ever before. This may have created some impression that teachers are less professional than formerly, but it should not be so considered. The advancing costs since the war have necessitated a readjustment of all wage and salary scales. Teachers' salaries have been notoriously low and it is high time that adjustments were made to a living basis. Until salaries are adequate they should be one of the principal subjects of discussion.

In general the public has been inclined to agree that teachers' salaries are too low and also that teachers are worthy of a good salary. The difficulties in obtaining adjustments have been largely those of adjusting the taxing machinery for the production of greater revenue.

Recent studies show that both maximum and minimum salaries have increased at least fifty per cent, and the tendency is still upward. The public should not allow this question to sink into the background until salaries are sufficiently large to obtain teachers of the highest qualifications. Public policy will not permit ruinous economy at this point. When the entire amount of money spent for instruction is compared with that spent for many unnecessary items, it is seen that we are not paying very dearly for education.

It is significant to note that the wide-spread agitation for better salaries for teachers has not lessened the professional spirit or devotion to their work. Those who are in touch with the teaching profession know that there is at the present time a greater spirit of service than ever before. True teachers have always been actuated by the highest motives and that is just as true to-day as it has been at any time. During the war teachers were anxious to do whatever was most serviceable. In most cases that meant remaining at their usual tasks. In some cases it meant entering government service, but now that the war is over there is a new appreciation of the importance of public education in the building of citizenship and teachers are feeling a new call to service.

Specialization in education. — Another characteristic of the work of teaching is that it is becoming more and more highly specialized. Just as the division of labor has resulted in specialization in industry, so it has in education. The work of teaching has become subdivided until now all teachers are specialists. This has certain advantages in that it enables a teacher to perfect her technique more easily. It makes her more efficient in performing her specialty. But it also has the disadvantage that the teacher labors in a small portion of the field and does not have contact with the general problems of education. This has produced a certain unrest and has led some teachers to feel that they are being excluded from participation in educational administration. As a matter of fact the work of education needs to be coordinated and this can be done only by proper organization. It can not be done by reverting to the former state of society in which occupations were not so highly differentiated as at present.

Another aspect of the work of teaching is its relationship to the modern scientific movement in education. The attempt to apply scientific methods to pedagogy is in its inception. It has not yet reached the status of a complete science of education, but it has resulted in refining the instruments of teaching and in seeing a clear definition of the problems involved. Teachers should be open-minded with reference to these new methods and should inform themselves of the developments in this field and the applicability of the various means to their work. As the subject becomes more fully io ESSENTIALS IN EDUCATION

worked out it will add to the effectiveness of the teacher's work and to her satisfaction in obtaining more definite results.

Another interesting aspect of the work of teaching is that modern education has become socialized to a very large extent: that is, children are being educated more and more by participation in various activities which develop them by experience. This has long been the philosophical ideal of education but it is only in modern times that it is being attained. Formerly the tendency was to educate children by instruction exclusively. It was a question of imparting knowledge by the teacher directly, but the modern school is a socialized school and it has produced a new day in education.

Rewards. — There are many rewards in the field of teaching. In the first place, it ministers to one's own intellectual growth, it makes continual study and advancement in scholarship possible. This prevents intellectual stagnation and early crystallization of ideas. It enables one to be a student continually and to feel each year that he advances in intellectual power. Besides this, it affords a pleasant social status. A teacher is a figure of importance in the community. She possesses influence and is regarded as a person of high standing. Also, the work of teaching is a work of service to mankind and it ministers to one's desire to serve largely. The

TEACHING AS A PROFESSION n

opportunity to influence the lives of future citizens is one to be envied and which undoubtedly in later years would be a great cause of gratification and pleasure.

Emerson says that, "He teaches who gives and he learns who receives. " The opportunity to give of one's self for the enrichment of the lives of others is an opportunity for the highest and most inspiring service.

Disadvantages. — It is true there are disadvantages to this as to every profession. There is danger of a certain narrowness and pedantry; there is a more or less uncertain tenure; there is a limited financial return, but it is well to remember as Vice- President Coolidge has said, "The realities of life are not measured by dollars and cents, the skill of the physician, the divine eloquence of the clergyman, the courage of the soldier, that which we call character in all men, are not matters of hire and salary. No person was ever honored for what he received. Honor has been the reward for what he gave. Public acclaim and the ceremonious recognition paid to returning heroes are not on account of their government pay, but of the service and sacrifice they gave their country."

The spirit of the teacher. — The whole subject is well summarized in the following paragraph which is taken from a letter received by the writer from an old friend who has had a long experience in the field of education. "In recalling the teachers of our youth why is it that after the lapse of time, comparatively few stand out as conspicuous in their influence on our mind or character. In seeking an explanation, do we not find it in the spirit of the teacher, a something that like the electric current is not seen but felt. All may have knowledge of their subject but few have the ability to transmit it in a way that appeals to the interest and understanding of the learner. When we find such spirit in Horace Mann or Mark Hopkins we establish institutions to impart it." This refers to the unconscious influence of the teacher which can not be analyzed or tabulated but which is the best single factor in a teacher's fitness for his work. The same thought has been attributed to Socrates in the following saying, "All my good is magnetic and I educate not by lessons but by going about my business."

A. Choosing an occupation difficult.

1. Complexity of society.

2. Uncertainty of one's tastes.

3. Characteristics of professional life.

B. Occupation must satisfy sense of values.

1. Financial aspect.

2. Sense of success.

3. Ideal of service.

C. Nature of teaching as an occupation.

1. Qualities required of a successful

teacher.

a. Leadership.

b. Sympathy.

c. Variety.

d. Initiative.

e. Idealism.

2. Modern point of view.

3. Education for democracy.

4. Financial aspects.

a. Teachers' salaries.

5. Specialization and division of labor.

6. The scientific movement.

7. Sociological considerations.

D. Rewards.

1. Self-development.

2. Honorable social status.

3. Opportunity for service.

E. Disadvantages.

1. Pedantry.

2. Uncertainty of tenure.

3. Small financial return.

F. The spirit of the teacher.

Is teaching a desirable profession? Why? Are the conditions improving in teaching? In what respects? What are the chief objections to the work of teaching? Are these objections more serious than those of other occupations? What characteristics of the work of teaching require special qualities on the part of the teacher? What are some of the rewards of teaching? Is a monetary reward more satisfying than a more intangible one? If you won a prize contest, would you prefer a medal or a cash prize?

Chapter II The Essential Qualities Of A Teacher

Importance of topic to teachers and others. —

Consideration of the most necessary qualities which teachers should possess is of interest both to teachers and school officers. If these qualities can be definitely determined they serve as standards for teachers for self-cultivation. They may be considered the norm toward which teachers should strive. These fundamental characteristics are of concern to school officers because they show the things to be sought in the employment of teachers.

In considering this subject it is highly desirable not to indulge in a council of perfection and to make an exhaustive catalogue of all good qualities of character, for to do this would imply so great a degree of moral and spiritual perfection that one might well despair of measuring up to it. Of course, one can never possess too many good qualities whether he be engaged in teaching or in other work. Every element of strength is of value and service to a teacher.

Essential qualities only will be considered. —

Instead of attempting to outline all the desirable qualities which enter into the making of the highest and best character, it will simplify our discussion if we attempt to limit the subject to those indispensable characteristics without which a teacher can not measure up to the ordinary standards of her profession. The following qualities represent the conviction of the writer as an outgrowth of twenty-five years' experience in public school work. Each is fundamental and necessary to success in teaching. While many characteristics might be added to this list, the qualities named represent the minimum essentials for a good teacher.

Professional spirit. — This primarily means that one be so actuated by a sense of service that he will live for his pupils and for the truth and not for selfish ends. This does not imply a mere sentimental altruism but rather a strong vigorous will to serve, to be used to the end that the life of the community may be improved and the cause of progress be subserved.

A professional spirit implies that one shall work without undue thought of monetary reward ; that is, the compensation must not be the chief motive of one's service. Strictly speaking, the work of teaching is so valuable that it could not be recompensed in direct proportion to its value. Just as the physii6 ESSENTIALS IN EDUCATION

cian who saves the life of his patient charges a nominal fee which is a mere honorarium and which does not at all represent the value of the service to the patient, so the teacher performs a function which can be recompensed only nominally.

A professional spirit also implies a right relationship toward all educational associates. It presupposes courtesy and kindness to one's fellow teachers and the absence of professional jealousy which would put selfish interests above devotion to the common welfare.

Sincerity. — Children have an almost uncanny intuition which enables them to perceive the real inner spirit of those with whom they deal. In dealing with children it is not so much what you know that counts as what you are. Unless a teacher be actuated by a sincere desire to minister to the highest good of her pupils, her work will be of little effect.

This quality also implies that a teacher has somewhat of an appreciation of life's real values and that incentives will be supplied which will develop in the pupils the highest qualities of manhood and womanhood.

Sympathetic insight. — The modern child study movement has shown that we must approach all teaching from the standpoint of the child. The aim should be not so much the inculcation of technical knowledge but rather a training and development of the powers of the individual in order to make him of maximum service.

On the side of morals this quality would enable one to appeal to the best instincts in the nature of each pupil and to enlist the child's own powers in the cause of his cultivation.

Adequate scholarship. — Notwithstanding the fact that the imparting of information is not the exclusive function of the teacher, adequate academic attainment is necessary as a part of the teacher's equipment. Without a sufficient wealth of knowledge the teacher can not properly relate the truth which the child is studying to other subjects and other phases of truth, nor can the teacher inspire the child with a deep interest in pursuit of a subject if his own vision be limited. The making of scholars, not scholarship, is the ultimate g'oal of teaching.

Scholarship is also valuable in that it tends to keep the teacher in the learner's attitude and thus conduces to mental vitality and growth. If there ever was a time when scholarship in itself was considered sufficient preparation for teaching, that idea no longer prevails, but it is so important a factor that a certain amount of scholastic attainment has always been made a prerequisite of obtaining a teaching position.

The importance of scholarship and the contribution which the scholar may make to civilization is inspiringly set forth in the following quotation from Emerson's The American Scholar. "The office of the scholar is to cheer, to raise, and to guide men by showing them facts amidst appearances. He plies the slow, unhonored, and unpaid task of observation. Flamsteed and Herschel, in their glazed observatories, may catalogue the stars with the praise of all men, and, the results being splendid and useful, honor is sure. But he, in his private observatory, cataloguing obscure and nebulous stars of the human mind, which as yet no man has thought of as such,— watching days and months, sometimes, for a few facts; correcting still his old records, — must relinquish display and immediate fame. In the long" period of his preparation, he must betray often an ignorance and shiftlessness in popular arts, incurring the disdain of the able who shoulder him aside. Long he must stammer in his speech; often forego the living for the dead. Worse yet, he must accept — how often! — poverty and solitude. For the ease and pleasure of treading the old road, accepting the fashions, the education, the religion of society, he takes the cross of making his own^ and, of course, the self-accusation, the faint hearty the frequent uncertainty and loss of time, which are the nettles and tangling vines in the way of the self-relying and self-directed; and the state of virtual hostility in which he seems to stand to society, and especially to educated society. For all this loss and scorn, what offset? He is to find consolation in exercising the highest functions of human nature. He is one who raises himself from private considerations, and breathes and lives on public and illustrious thoughts. He is the world's eye. He is the world's heart. He is to resist the vulgar prosperity that retrogrades ever to< barbarism, by preserving and communicating heroic sentiments, noble biographies, melodious verse, and the conclusions of history. Whatsoever oracles the human heart, in all emergencies, in all solemn hours, has uttered as its commentary on the world of actions, — these he shall receive and impart. And whatsoever new verdict Reason from her inviolable seat pronounces on the passing men and events of to-day, — this he shall hear and promulgate/'

Motivation. — The fifth essential quality is the ability to vitalize one's teaching : that is, to relate the facts taught to the life of the pupil on the one hand and to the life of the community on the other. Isolated facts acquired without reference to their usability do not constitute an education and do not serve in the development of mental power.

Furthermore, it is the setting up of these relationships which tends to develop judgment on the part of the pupil. This judgment is the result of a comparison of facts and the estimation of one thing in terms of another.

An interesting illustration of vitalized teaching was furnished the writer a few years ago when he heard two college graduates who had been out of college several years, discussing the question as to the most valuable course which they had taken while in college. Both agreed that it was a certain course in astronomy. This decision seemed peculiar since astronomy is not a subject which would ordinarily be considered either practical or especially interesting from the standpoint of practical affairs. Upon inquiry it was found that the professor of astronomy in this college was an exceptionally able man who succeeded in impressing upon the minds of his pupils not only the truths of astronomy, but the great truths of life, so that not only were their minds informed but their judgment was developed and principles of conduct were established.

While it would not be justifiable to draw from this incident the conclusion that the kind of subject-matter is not important if only it be taught in an interesting way, it does point to the fact that true teaching will enlighten the mind and inspire the ideals regardless of the subject-matter.

Unselfishness. — The sixth and last essential quality is self-effacement. This is characterized by Professor Palmer in his excellent essay as "a willingness to be forgotten." This spirit is implied in what has been said above under the head -of professional spirit. It implies the absence of all self-advertising and all exploitation of one's position for the purpose of self-aggrandizement. The true teacher will live for his pupils and the truth and will devote his entire thought and energy to a pursuit of these ideals. It is the office of the teacher to develop the qualities of his pupils to the point where they shall become self-reliant and self-determining and thus obviate the need of a teacher. This thought has been expressed in the saying that the true point of graduation is the vanishing point for the necessity of a teacher.

Of course, it is inevitable that the work of the true teacher will not be forgotten and that the contribution which she makes to the development of her pupils will enter into the fabric of their lives and will there be remembered with gratitude and affection. This is one of the splendid rewards of the teacher, but it is incidental and comes as a byproduct and should by no means be set up as the aim of the teacher's work.

These six qualities are essential for a teacher: — professional spirit, sincerity, sympathetic insight, scholarship, ability to vitalize teaching, and self-effacement, and without any one of them the highest success in teaching can not be attained. These truths are summarized in the following quotation from Lord Broughman : "The great teacher's progress is not to be compared with anything like the march of the conqueror, but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. Each one of these great teachers of the world, possessing his soul in peace, performs his appointed course, awaits in patience the fulfillment of the promises, and, resting from his labors, bequeaths his memory to the generation whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under the humble but not inglorious epitaph, commemorating 'one in whom mankind lost a friend, and no man got rid of an enemy/ "

Assuming that the above discussion has covered the prerequisites for success in teaching, two further considerations demand our attention: namely, how can the teacher acquire these qualities ; and, secondly, how is the teacher to be judged as to the possession of them.