School architecture; principles and practices

Front matter

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Preface

When the necessity for a comprehensive book of this kind was realized by the writer, it was his first intention to offer a treatise on the planning of school buildings, written wholly from the architect's point of view. After a few months of effort it dawned upon him that in order to make the most thorough use of such information, it would be more valuable to both architect and schoolman if the organization of American schools were first discussed and emphasized as a basis for the discussion of the architectural features. Thus the application of modern school architecture to modern school development could be concisely and logically shown. This plan has been followed. Information on the organization of schools was very much needed by the writer when he first turned his attention to the architecture of school buildings, and, no doubt, such a need is felt by many others who are now approaching the subject.

It must be realized that the old school, even that of five years ago, has passed just as surely as the little red schoolhouse that once stood on the hill. In its place has already appeared the new, throbbing, spirited institution, receiving its impulse from the heart of industry, commerce, and society, which, in turn, are looking to the school for practical aid in the solving of their accumulating problems of trade, employment, and American citizenship. But this new school cannot stand alone ; it must rest on the foundations and traditions of its predecessor, just as the nation depends on the securely anchored constitutional footing given to it by its founders. It is this transition which the schoolman and the architect, working together and in sympathy, must bring about with saneness and economy.

The organization of the school, through the extension of its branches, has become very complex to many who are out of touch with it; to those intimately associated with it, it is seen as a clearly unified development. The writer understood, that, if the organization was to be properly presented, it should be described by those who know it best. Therefore, the collaborators were selected with much care, and their contributions are a very important part of the book. A deep debt of gratitude is felt for all the assistance these associates have given ; they have entered into the work with a zeal and interest that has surpassed all anticipation. The conferences and discussions have been a great pleasure and an education in themselves.

Particularly has the author profited in discussing the problems of the school with Mr. William F. Ewing, formerly Director of Business Affairs of the Technical High School, Oakland, California, whose vision of the school of the future is most delightfully hopeful; and with Dr. Edna Watson Bailey, Head of the Science Department of the University High School of the same city, who is eminently successful in arousing the interest of her students.

Acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and aid so cheerfully extended by Mr. William C. Bruce, Editor of the American School Board Journal, and by Mr. W. H. Crocker, Editor of the American Architect, whose splendid journals have often been a source of valuable information; also to Mr. George M. Thiriot, Head of the Academic Department of the Technical Continuation School, Oakland, California, for his valuable assistance in editing the manuscript prepared by the writer.

The author is deeply grateful to his fellow architects who have so kindly furnished photographs and drawings of their work. He hopes the book will be helpful in providing plans for schoolhouses in which the highest ideals of the American school may be more effectively realized.

John J. Donovan

Oakland, California June, 1920

Introduction

During the past quarter century, each succeeding year has witnessed the broadening development of public education. The relation of the school to the community has radically changed. Systems of education have been evolved as the result of the careful observation of those engaged in pedagogy, and these systems have become broadened and extended until the present aspect of modern educational methods is closely allied to the best elements of paternalism.

With this evolution and extension of educational methods it was logical to assume that the modern schoolhouse would keep pace in its designing and planning. In addition to the development of the school building and its surroundings for educational purposes, there has been developed, particularly in the larger cities, a further use of the schoolhouse as the community center. This added use of the school building has increased the problems that are present in the arrangement of plan and the perfection of design.

The problem, therefore, that confronts the architect who undertakes to provide school accommodations is perhaps more complex than any other professional task he may be given. The very elements of paternalism that surround the modern school building not only carry with them the obligation to provide such convenient and attractive features as are possible of attainment with the money available, but there is also the even more important element that looks to the safeguarding of the pupils' health and the measures that will be necessary to protect them from every possible injury.

Architects engaged in this responsible work need to know the essentials of hygiene and sanitation. Ventilation, heating, lighting, both natural and artificial, must all be carefully considered. Men who have spent years of successful practice in the solution of the problems that surround the modern schoolhouse will have acquired as the result of long practice, close study, and observation, a wide fund of information that is practical and valuable as it is based on actual operations.

The successful stage to which schoolhouse design has been brought in this country is primarily due to three groups of men who prominently stand forth as the best exponents of the development of the modern school buildings. These groups, located on the eastern seaboard, in the middle west, and on the Pacific coast, are responsible for the development of successful types of school buildings. The author of this book is prominent among the members of these three groups. His success in the special field of architecture, to which he has devoted so many years of practice, makes this work absolutely authoritative and dependable. Its method of preparation is calculated to greatly simplify its use as an encyclopedic treatise on the subject. Whether used by architects, members of school boards, superintendents, or any of the many people who are directly interested in the various phases of the modern schoolhouse and modern educational methods, this work clearly sets forth the answer to every question that is likely to arise.

W. H. Crocker

Editor, The American Architect

Contents

CHAPTER . PAGE

I. Sites and Grounds i

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A.

Index

575 711

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS

Allen, James E.

Lawrence, Mass. : Oliver School (assembly hall), 339.

Allison and Allison

Glendora, Calif. : Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. Monrovia, Calif. : Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. Santa Monica, Calif. : High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679.

Dickey, Chas. W., and Donovan, John J.

Santa Barbara, Calif. : Proposed New High School, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Elko, Nevada: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655.

Donovan, John J.

Albany, Calif. : Elementary School, 637.

General plans and characteristics of good school sites, 2, 3, 5, 7. Modesto, Calif. : Sewing Unit Layout for High School, 508.

Oakland, Calif. : Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal's office) ; 270 (classroom showing open windows) ; 282 (kindergarten porch) ; 461 (manual training room) ; 491 (domestic science room) ; 543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing and toilet systems). McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584. Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580. Theater- Auditorium, 329, 330.

Palo Alto, Calif. : Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. Plans of Eye-strain Preventive Desks and Seats, 208, 209. Sacramento, Calif. : Oak Park Elementary School, 29, 30, 31. San Leandro, Calif. : McKinley School, 577, 578.

Washington School, 578.

San Luis Obispo, Calif. : Elementary School, 631. Donovan, John J., and Hobart, Louis P. (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582.

Donovan, John J., and Hornbostel, Henry (Consulting Architect).

Oakland, Calif.: Oakland Technical High School, 13 (group plan; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; 356, 362, 378 (physics and chemistry lecture rooms and laboratories) ; 404, 406, 417 (bookkeeping, typing, and drawing rooms) ; 425, 429, 433, 441, 460 (shops) ; 487 (cooking room) ; 510 (costume-designing classroom).

Donovan, John J., and Howard, John Galen (Associate Architect).

Oakland, Calif. : Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds, actual layout) ; 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kindergarten porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio). Donovan, John J., and Miller, Washington J. (Associate Architect).

Oakland, Calif. : Jefferson School, 634, 635, 636. Donovan, John J., and Mullgardt, Louis C. (Associate Architect).

Oakland, Calif. : Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606.

Donovan, John J., and Reed, Walter D. (Associate Architect).

Oakland, Calif. : Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS

Garber and Woodward

Cincinnati, Ohio : Guilford School, 624, 625, 626. Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623.

Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630.

Gee, Edwin M.

Toledo, Ohio: Lincoln Elementary School (kindergarten), 285, 590, 591, 592, 593. Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616.

Gilkey, Howard

Modesto, Calif. : Grounds of High School, 62.

Gregg, Professor John W.

Berkeley, Calif. John Muir School, 64.

Fresno, Calif. : Longfellow School Grounds (landscape plan for proposed developments), 238. Imperial Valley, Calif. : Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. Kingsburg, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 67. Los Angeles, Calif. : High School (landscape plan), 65. Puente, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 66.

Wasco, Calif. : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park and park playground areas), 242.

GUILBERT, E. F.

GUILBERT AND BETELLE

Newark, N. J. : Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290. Lafayette School, 32, t>Z- Ridge School, 600, 601.

State Normal (detail of doorway), 599.

Hays, Wm. C.

San Francisco, Calif. : Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509.

Holland, H. Osgood

Buffalo, N. Y. : Hutchinson Central High School (library), 298, 299.

Hussander, A. F.

Chicago, 111. : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95.

Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40.

Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228, 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336

Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. Seating plans for classroom, 258.

Ittner, Wm. B.

Greenfield, Ohio : Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium) 5317 (main entrance vestibule) ; 649

650, 651, 652.

Minneapolis, Minn. : New High School (chemistry group), 381. Kirkwood, Mo. : Grammar School, 106, 107. St. Louis, Mo. : Ashland School, 105.

Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten). Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19. Glasgow School, 104.

Grover Cleveland High School, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146; 331, 332 (auditorium); 349 (music room); 361 (physics laboratory) ; 382 (chemistry laboratory) ; 394 (conservatory) ; 395 (physiology labora-

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS

Ittner, Wm. B. — Continued

tory) ; 407 (typing room) ; 421, 422 (drawing rooms) ; 494 (cooking-room) ; 505 (laundry laboratory) ; 516 (cafeteria).

Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87; 287 (kindergarten). Washington, D. C. : Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor).

Johnson, Wm. Templeton

San Diego, Calif. : Francis W. Parker Elementary School, 213, 284, 594, 595, 596.

KlLHAM AND HOPKINS

Atlantic Heights, N. H. : Schoolhouse, 617, 618.

Lawrence and Holford

Portland, Ore. : Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621.

Maginnis and Walsh

McCORNACK, W. R.

Cleveland, Ohio : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640. Almira School, 641, 642, 643, 644.

Morgan, Agnes Fay, and Donovan, John J. (collaborators).

Myers, Romaine W. (Consulting Electrical Engineer.)

Naramore, Floyd A.

Portland, Oregon: Benson Polytechnic High School (boiler, engine, and fan rooms), 528, 529, 530, 533, 535, 536.

Franklin High School (boiler and toilet rooms), 537, 538, 547. New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540.

Olmsted Brothers

Fitchburg, Mass. : Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17.

Packard, Frank L. (Architect), and Mueller, Frederick G. (Associate Architect). Hamilton, Ohio : High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685.

Packard, Frank L. (Architect), Snyder, Ralph (Associate Architect) , and Babitt, Edward N. (Engineer). Parkersburg, West Virginia : High School (Assembly hall), 341 ; 686, 687, 688, 689.

Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton

Downer's Grove, 111. : Kindergarten (floor plan and interior views), 288, 289. Evanston, 111. : Lincolnwood School, District 75, 338, 597, 598.

Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. Kenilworth, 111.: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field); 41 (interior); 439 (foundry); 517

Winnetka, 111. : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36.. Pontiac, Mich. : High School (gymnasium), 227 ; 656, 657, 658. Fond du Lac, Wis. : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium).

Poland, Wm. A.

Trenton, N. J. : Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118 ; 229 (gymnasium) ; 333 (assembly hall) ; 452 (printing shop) ; 498 (cooking-room).

Ratcliff, Walter H., Jr.

Berkeley, Calif. : Edison Junior High School, 124, 125.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS

Reed, George E. (Mechanical Engineer).

Heating and ventilating plans, 525, 526, 527. Plumbing systems, 542.

Sanders, Theo. M.

Little Rock, Ark. : Junior High School, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123.

Sellons and Pearson

Sacramento, Calif. : Fremont School (open-air kindergarten), 290.

Snyder, C. B. J.

Brooklyn, N. Y. : Boys' High School (plan of library), 300. Girls' High School (plan of library), 301, 302. Public School No. 29 (interior plans), 259, 314, 410, 480.

Stotz, Edward A.

Pittsburgh, Pa. : Schenley High School (interior views), 296, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501, 663, 664, 665. Symmes, Edwin J. (Architect), and Crim, William H. (Associate Architect).

Crystal Springs, Calif. : Preliminary Sketch, 602, 603.

Tenney, Walter A., and Donovan, John J. (collaborators).

Power hammer foundation, 443.

Shop lecture and exhibit rooms, 466. Whitehouse and Fouilhoux

Astoria, Oregon: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612.

Portland, Oregon: Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS

Arkansas

Little Rock: Junior High School, 119, 120. 121, 122, 123.

California

Albany: Elementary School, 637.

Berkeley: Edison Junior High School, 124, 125.

John Muir Elementary School, 64.

University of California (Dental Clinic), 216; (bookstack) 297. Crystal School District : Grammar School, 602, 603. Fresno : Longfellow School Grounds, 238. Glendora: Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. Imperial Valley : Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. Kingsburg: Union High School (landscape plan), 67. Los Angeles: High School (landscape development), 65.

Lincoln High School (trade sewing- room) , 512. Modesto : High School (grounds), 62 ; (sewing unit layout), 508. Monrovia: Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. Oakland: Bushrod Playground, 239, 241.

Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633.

Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal's office) ; 270 (classroom) ; 281, 282 (kindergarten); 461, 491 (manual training and domestic science rooms); 543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing system).

Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606.

Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds and actual layout); 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kindergarten porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio).

Jefferson Elementary School, 634, 635, 636.

Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582.

McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584.

Mosswood Park (tennis grounds), 240; (hockey field), 241.

Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580.

Theater- Auditorium, 329, 330.

Palo Alto: Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. Puente : Union High School (landscape plan), 66. Sacramento : Fremont School (kindergarten), 290.

Oak Park School, 29, 30, 31.

San Diego: Francis W. Parker School, 213; (kindergarten), 284; 594, 595, 596. San Francisco: Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509. San Leandro : McKinley School, 577, 578.

Washington School, 578.

San Luis Obispo : Elementary School, 631.

Santa Barbara : Proposed new high school, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Santa Monica: High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. Wasco : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park, and playground areas), 242.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS

Colorado

Sterling: Logan County Industrial Arts High School, 197, 198. District or Columbia

Washington: Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor). Illinois

Chicago : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95.

Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40.

Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228 ; 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336

Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. Downer's Grove : Kindergarten, 288, 289. Evanston: Lincolnwood School District 75; (assembly hall), 338, 597, 598.

Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. Kenilworth: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field) ; 41 (interior view) ; 439 (foundry); 517

Pullman: Pullman Free School of Manual Training, 187, 188, 189. Winnetka : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. Massachusetts

Boston : Plan of cooking room for elementary schools, 485. Plan of physics laboratories, 360.

Wentworth Institute, 184, 185, 186, 187. Fitchburg: Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17. Lawrence : Oliver School (assembly hall) 339. New Bedford : Vocational School, 182. Northampton: Smith Agricultural School, 196, 199. Taunton : Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 070, 671, 672. Worcester: Boys' Trade School, 172, 173. Michigan

Pontiac: High School, 227 (gymnasium) ; 656, 657, 658. Minnesota

Minneapolis: New High School (chemistry group), 381.

William Hood Dunwoody Institute, 178, 179, 180. Rochester: High School (library), 292. Missouri

Kansas City : Jane Hayes Gate Institute, 194. Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, 177. Kirkwood : Grammar School, 106, 107. St. Louis, Ashland School, 105.

Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten).

Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19.

David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, 174.

Glasgow School, 104.

422, 494, 505, 516 (interior views). Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87 ; 287 (kindergarten) Nevada

Elko: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. New Hampshire

Atlantic Heights: Schoolhouse, 617, 618.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS

New Jersey

Bayonne : Vocational School, 183.

Newark: Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290.

Lafayette School, 32, ^t,.

Ridge School, 600, 601.

South Side High School, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137 ; 340 (assembly hall).

State Normal (detail of doorway), 599.

Vocational School, 190, 191, 192.

Trenton: Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118; 229 (gymnasium); ^^^ (assembly hall); 452 (shop) ; 498 (cooking room) .

New Mexico

Albuquerque : Electrical equipment in University of New Mexico, 493.

New York

Brooklyn: Boys' High School (library), 300.

Girls' High School (library), 301, 302.

Pratt Institute (laboratories) 367, 368, 370, 371, 373.

Public School No. 29 (interior views), 259, 314, 410, 480. Buffalo: Hutchinson Central High School, 298, 299 (library) ; 304 (museum cases). New York: Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696.

Teachers College, Columbia University (laundry laboratory), 504. Ohio

Cleveland : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640.

Cincinnati: Guilford School, 624, 625, 626.

Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623.

Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630. Greenfield: Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium); 317 (front entrance vestibule), 649, 650,

651, 652.

Oregon

Astoria: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612.

Portland: Benson Polytechnic High School, 434, 448, 449, 455, 458 (shops) ; 528, 529, 530, 532, 533, 535, 536 (boiler and fan rooms).

Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621.

Franklin High School, 537, 538 (boiler room) ; 547 (toilet room). Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540.

Pennsylvania

Williamson: Free School of Mechanical Trades, 176. West Virginia

Parkersburg: High School 314 (assembly hall) ; 686, 687, 688, 689. Wisconsin

Fond du Lac : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium).

Milwaukee: Boys' Technical High School, 181.

Chapter I

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A.

General Plan of School Sites. Zone Planning. Characteristics of Good School Sites. Size of School Sites. The Elementary School Play Areas. The Junior High School Play Areas. High School Sites. Location of the Building. Surfacing of Playgrounds, (i) Oil Macadam. (2) Asphalt Surfacing on Rock. (3) Asphalt Surfacing on Concrete. Fencing of Grounds. Wider Use of School Grounds. Play Yard Accommodations.

The arts, the architecture, the literature, and the laws of a nation reflect the culture and intelligence of its people at every period of its history. In this day and age, however, the selection of school sites is a fair indication of the wisdom and farsightedness of the representatives of our people and of the people themselves, so important has such selection become.

The school building has its limitations, but the site has none. As a school site it may be abandoned on account of changes in residential or industrial conditions. But if it is well chosen for the intrinsic values a school site should have, it will always be valuable either to the school department as school grounds, or to the municipality as public playgrounds.

While the vision of the people as a whole has been slower than the growth of the school and the activities surrounding it, nurturing that vision by constructive suggestion is probably better than railing about the errors of the past. Patriotism and civic interest, now so brilliant, will do much to dispel shortsightedness and the lack of understanding of the great problem of good citizenship, which is founded on education and the associations and activities allied with education. The great war has strengthened many of the frailties of humanity and awakened the nation to the necessity of health and physical vigor as well as of scientific intellectual development. For the health of the mind seldom rises above the health of the body, and a healthful, vigorous body is the foundation for a sound, vigorous mind. They are parallel, and the rounding out of both should be simultaneous. Therefore, when discussing a school plant, either of one or of many schools, visions of children and adults at play and recreation should be uppermost in mind. Playgrounds are as important a part of the equipment of an educational plant as the buildings.

The large percentage of rejected young men of draft age who failed to qualify as physically fit for the army or the navy has demonstrated the necessity of supervision of play and physical training for both boys and young men. Also the demands of the new vocations thrust upon girls and women make it mandatory that they too shall have an equal opportunity to prepare themselves physically to meet life's duties with confidence. The great possibilities before the nation rest entirely upon the opportunities for universal physical and intellectual education, not upon the development of a few prodigies. The war has taught many lessons, but none more thoroughly than that of the necessity of physical fitness.

General Plan of School Sites. — Before discussing the selection of a particular site, it would be wise to look at the larger problem of selecting many sites, and of following some definite plan in building up a plant of many separate units. The procrastinating and haphazard custom, so common to nearly all communities, of waiting until congestion forces action for enlarging or extending the existing plant, works to disadvantage, because, when steps are taken, they must of necessity be hasty and often ill-advised. The consequence is that the cost of grounds is greater than it need be if sites were obtained with definite regularity according to a carefully prepared plan that has flexibility as one of its chief assets. Where necessary, present laws should be revised or new laws drawn to enable boards of education to purchase and dispose of land quickly and with the least inconvenience. The present laws are probably ample for the purchase of land ; they should be revised to permit of the disposal of land easily. They would then permit the buying of land from five to eight years, or longer, in advance of the existing need, and would enable school boards to retain it for school purposes or dispose of it as the later prevailing conditions warranted. Without going into detail here, there are sufficient ways and means to safeguard against fraudulent and incompetent selections. Such selections, even at their worst, could hardly equal the economic waste of the prevailing methods.

This leads up to planning for sites, and what kind of property a school board should select for school grounds. First of all, the map of the city should be plotted geographically according to zones based on the census of elementary, intermediate, and high school pupils. If the elementary, intermediate, and senior high school plan is adopted as the educational system of the city, it will make the general planning easier, reduce the cost of housing per pupil, and give greater facilities for immediate relief in times of congestion. Keeping in mind, however, the school population as the basis to work upon, the intermediate schools of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades should be the centers of circles having radii of one to one and one-quarter miles; the perimeters of these circles should be approximately the line of location of the outer boundary of the elementary school zone. In turn, the elementary schools should be spaced within the intermediate school areas not farther apart than one mile. (See Figures i and ia.) In other words, their location should be the centers of circles whose radii are one-half to three-quarters of a mile, the proximity depending entirely upon the population. Children below the sixth grade (n years of age) should not be compelled to walk farther to school than one-half to three-quarters of a mile. Special attention should be given to conditions such as railroad crossings, highways much used by automobiles, and active city streets. Good planning will save many a mother unnecessary worry for the safety of her child and often will save the child's life.

Centers for high school zones are not as much restricted in regard to distances apart as are those of the intermediate and elementary schools, for the reason that the students attending the high school are more mature, and many of them arrive by means of bicycles, automobiles, or the street cars. Moreover, high school sites must be of such large acreage that size and cost are important factors, and it is very often the case that suitable sites cannot be found within a mile or more of the center of a high school zone. However, they are a part of the general plan, and the difficulty of obtaining such desirable sites emphasizes all the more the necessity of planning in advance.

Zone Planning. — Zone planning for school u.ra r-u Mins g roun( j s j s s i m piy another phase of modern 4 ' city planning whereby the economic saving of the city may be increased through elimination of waste in both the erection of school buildings and the buying and development of school sites.

For instance, zone planning would prevent the needless duplication of a number of departments in the elementary and intermediate schools. Whenever an elementary school attempts to maintain the full number of grades, that is from one to eight, it is necessary to provide a complete plant containing a large assembly hall, sewing and cooking rooms, manual training rooms,

Map Showing the Distribution of Present Schools, Proposed Additions, and Proposed New Schools extensive sheltered playrooms, a large administration suite, and other rooms and spaces accessory to classrooms and needed in a school of this kind. These are necessary almost entirely on account of the older pupils in the school, say from the sixth to the eighth grade. Now an examination of the enrollment of the different grades of the elementary school will disclose the fact that the preponderance of attendance is in the lower grades. The result becomes something that no wise business man would tolerate, — a large and expensive part of the plant in use only part time by a minority of the pupils and exactly duplicated in every one of the other elementary schools.

It is this economic waste of duplication that the method of zone planning would eliminate. The upper grades in the elementary school of the present system, from the seventh to the eighth inclusive, and the first grade of the high school, would be concentrated in one centrally located intermediate school which would contain complete departmental equipment for the pupils of these grades. This organization would at once relieve the elementary schools within its zone of the further necessity for such extensive equipment. It is safe to say that one such intermediate school, accommodating 1200 pupils, would provide for about 500 graduates yearly from the near-by elementary schools whose combined enrollment would be from 3500 to 4000 pupils. Nor would this method prevent the construction of any of the above-mentioned departments in the elementary schools wherever they could be so adjusted to the needs of the pupils below the seventh grade that they would be in constant and profitable use during the school day. 1 This plan would further enable school boards to practice economy in securing an adequate site for each kind of school. While it is true that the enrollment of some elementary schools may be larger than that of the intermediate schools, nevertheless the former require smaller areas for playgrounds than the latter, just as the intermediate school requires less space than the high school. This difference is due to the different kinds of recreation required by the pupils of the respective schools. When the development of any school district is planned for in advance, and the general school scheme is carefully . plotted, desirable sites can be purchased with much more economy than later when the pressure of increasing population makes their purchase necessary wherever they may be had and at whatever price may be asked. It is true that under present conditions school boards may hesitate about buying land in advance, for fear that it may never be used. This situation, as has been said before, can be changed by the enactment of laws that will permit the disposal of school land whenever such disposal will be advantageous to the community.