The Boise survey; a concrete study of the administration of a city school system

Front matter

J. B. SEARS

EDUCATIONAL SUR

Class A 2 C. fi

Contents

Page

Director's Letter of Transmittal v

Chapter

Chapter I

THE educational problem which the city of Boise is attempting to solve will be more clearly understood if stated first of all in terms which characterize the community and its people. Who the people are, what they are working at, the geographical, economic, and social forces with which they must cope, all combine, as similar forces do everywhere, to determine the kind of schools that are needed.

Boise is a city of approximately 35,000 inhabitants,^ located in the broad, fertile valley of the Boise River and in the center of the most densely populated portion of the state. Though the state of Idaho comprises a large area of the western slope of the Rocky Mountain system and holds large mineral resources, it has in the north, and particularly in the south and west portions of the state along the Snake River and its tributaries, very large agricultural possibilities. Government reports show that the soil, climate, and irrigation possibilities all promise a large agricultural future for the state. According to the census report of 19 10, about one tenth of the land was in farms, the land of Ada County, 15 per cent of which was then under irrigation, being at that time worth $125 per acre.

The capital of the state and the couniy seat of Ada County are located at Boise, which, with its size and other resources, make it the chief center of population between Salt Lake City on the southeast and Spokane and Portland

1 United States Census estimate for 191 7 was 34,547.

I on the northwest. For obvious reasons, therefore, Boise should become the educational center, not only of Idaho, but of a goodly portion of the large section of country known as the Inland Empire, and should lead in the establishment of higher and higher standards for public education in that territory, just as Los Angeles leads in the Southwest.

BOISE A GROWING CITY

Idaho as compared with the United States as a whole is growing rapidly in population, and the same is true of the city of Boise, as the figures of Table i from the United States Bureau of the Census will show. To see just what this means for the city of Boise we have only to compare its rate of growth with that of other cities of its class in the United States. From the 57 cities with estimated populations (191 7) of between 30,000 and 40,000/ Table 2 presents facts for 26 cities."

Boise's Rate of Increase in Population as Compared with That OF Idaho and That of the United States

Population of State

Population of Boise

Per Cent Increase over Preceding Census

Census

United States

325,594

161,772

88,548

32,610

14,999

17,358

5,957

2,311

1,899

21.0 20.7 25-5 30- 1

101.3

82.7

171-5

117. 4

191-4

157-8

21.7

90.9

1 See Financial Statistics of Cities Having a Population of over 30,000 in 191 7. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C.

2 None of the western cities of the 57 were omitted; otherwise all states having cities of this size are represented by at least one such city.

Size and Rate of Growth of Selected Cities

(Government estimates for 1917)^

City

Population

21. Wihnington, N. C. . . .

23. Easton, Penn

25,138 25,580

31,541 35,486

34,547

32,985 30,500

30,533 38,582

31,927 38,120

Per Cent of Increase

56.8

32.8

24.8

24.7

71 4.2

1910-1917

87.8 50.9 26.2

35-7 32.6 19.4

25-7

22.4

22.7

22.6

17.7

13-3

16.5

20.2

52.0

12.5

31.5

14.7

3.8

II. 6

16. 1

10. 1

7.0

6.1

5.3

2.5

From this table it becomes clear that Boise is one of the most rapidly growing cities of its class in the country, ranking third of 26 cities in its rate of growth from 1900 to 19 10,

1 Estimated, See Note i above.

and holding high place in the group during the seven years since the last regular census. The city is not crowded, and since it can expand in every direction it need never face the problems which come with too great density of population. With the growth that is practically guaranteed by the soil and mineral resources of the surrounding country, Boise can confidently expect to become a city of 50,000 before many years and accordingly that her expenditures for education will be constantly on the increase.

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION

I. Racial Groups

It is not merely the rate of growth in population alone that creates perplexing educational problems in a city. The fact of racial elements is often quite as important. Inquiry into Boise's present and prospective future in this respect therefore is pertinent.

Boise's future will depend upon the development of the eleven Mountain and Pacific Coast states. In 1910 these eleven states had a combined population of 6,825,821. The state of Idaho alone had 325,594, and the city of Boise 17,358. Table 3 shows the racial composition of the people of these groups, together with that for the United States as a whole. While these facts for the city of Boise are not entirely complete, they are complete enough to show that the city does not differ materially from the state as a whole. The facts of this table somewhat condensed, together with figures for the next previous census, are shown graphically in Figure i (Boise partially excepted). From this it will be seen, not only that Idaho and the city of Boise stand relatively high in native and white stock, and that the foreign element in the West as compared with the United States as a whole is on the decline, but that for the state of Idaho this decline is more pronounced than it is for either of the western groups of states. This is made even more obvious

TABLE 3 Racial Composition of Population

Per Cent of Total Population (U. S. Census)

White

Negro

Oriental and AU

Others

Natives, White

Foreign Born White

Total Native

(All Races)

PoUtical Division

Native Parentage

Foreign

or Mixed Parentage

Total Foreign

Races)

United States . .

Mountain States .

Pacific States . .

10.7 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.7

0.4 3-5 2,3 1.8 1.6

\n

20. 5 12.4 13.1

82.8 77.2 86.9

14.7 17.2 22.8 13. 1 when we consider that the native stock in Idaho has increased from 69.4 per cent of the state's population in 1880 to 86.9 per cent in 1910, or that the foreign group has de-

P^r cent <

1910 UNITED STATES 1900

1910 MOUhTTAIN STATES 1900

1910 FVVCIFIC STATES

BOISE'S'O P^T cent' C

= mmm^km^

1 1

1^^^:^^^^^:^;%^ ^ . '■

. 1

1 1 1 1 1 i> flo d

.d

Fig. I. Composition of Population in Boise Compared with That of Larger Areas (U. S. Census)

creased in this time from 30.6 per cent to 13.1 per cent of the population. It should be said here, in view of our lack of complete statistics, that foreign faces and names among the school children of Boise, as well as some study of the parentage of the pupils taking tests in this survey, tend to confirm our judgment that the above statistics fairly characterize the population of the Boise Independent School District at the present time, and that it is safe to say that the educational problems produced by the presence of children from foreign countries are at present insignificant, and that in respect to race the city's school population is rapidly becoming more and more homogeneous.

2. Age Groups

The problem of race is but one angle from which we need to study the population of a city in order to be able clearly to state its educational problem. A second question is: How many children has the city to educate, and how many vigorous young adults are there to produce the necessary wealth with which to pay for schools? The answer to this question varies greatly in different parts of the country, as Table 4 shows. This table w^as compiled from the 19 10 census report, and while not entirely accurate for the present it is believed to offer a reasonably correct description of the present population.

From this table, which divides the total population into four groups, it will be seen that there is fairly wide variation among cities in each group, that the distribution for the state of Idaho does not vary widely from that for the United States as a whole, but that that for the city of Boise varies considerably from both.

In this study we are especially concerned with two groups: those 5 to 19 and those 20 to 44 years old. The 5 to 19 years age-group is a fair index to the per cent of the total population for whom regular schooling must be provided. The 20 to 44 years age-group is a fair index to the wealth-

Age Distribution of Population

(United States Census of 1910)

I. 2. 3- 4. 5- 6

7. 8.

13- 14.

15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23. 24.

Name of City

United States ....

Idaho

Everett, Wash. . . .

Stockton, Calif. . . .

Brookline, Mass. . . .

BOISE, IDAHO . .

Jackson, Mich. . . .

Ehnira, N. Y

Zanesville, Ohio . . .

Colorado Springs, Colo.

Niagara Falls, N. Y. .

Bellingham, Wash. . .

Aurora, III

Stamford, Conn. . . .

Shreveport, La. . . .

Columbia, S. C. . . .

Portsmouth, Va. . . .

Wihnington, N. C. . .

Charleston, W. Va. .

Knoxville, Tenn. . . .

Ogden, Utah ....

Austin, Texas ....

Per Cent of Total Population

Under 5 Years

6.3 6.3 7.5 8.1

7-1 8.8

7-3 10. 7 8.8 8.6 8.7 8.7

9-7

9.1 8.0

9-7

8.7

II. 9

8.7

5 to 19 Years

304 30.2

18.8

19-5 20.2 21.9

22.8

24-3 24.4

24-5 24-5 25.0

20 to 44 Years

390 40.8

49 50

45 43 43 44 48 45 42 47 42

45 Years and Over

19.0 16.6

23.3 16.2 20.7

259 17.2 16.9 21.3 producing power of the city so far as men count. An examination of column 2 of diis table shows that, judged on this basis, Boise ranks fourth among 26 cities of its class in respect to the smallness of its school population. In other words, of the 26 cities 22 have larger percentages of their respective populations to provide schooling for than has Boise; or, we may say, only three of the 26 cities are in this sense carrying a lighter load than Boise carries.

The vigorous young wealth producers, the men and women who have or will soon take over the political and economic responsibilities for their respective cities, are included in the age-group 20 to 44 years and appear in column 4 of the table. In the 26 cities, we find in this group all the way from 40.7 per cent of the population in Austin, Texas, to 59.4 per cent in Everett, Washington, — Everett being the only city of the 26 with a higher percentage of its population within the limits of these ages than is found in Boise. As to infants 5 years old or less, Boise ranks low, only 4 of the 26 cities having a smaller percentage of their populations in this group.

These figures have a certain significance in defining the education problem for Boise. As compared with other cities, Boise ranks high in young and middle-aged adults and low in infants and children of school age. In other words, when measured by other cities of her class, Boise has large wealthproducing power in comparison with the number of both young and old dependants. Other things being equal, the city of Boise should be able to provide for its children, not average, but decidedly superior educational advantages. If the 5 to 19 years age-group in Boise were 29.3 per cent of the total population, as is true for Austin, Texas, it is obvious that school costs for the city would be very close to one third greater than they are at present.

ILLITERACY

Another question of importance is. What percentage of the city's population is illiterate? Our experience with

Boise's Educational Problem g

Bolshevism and with ignorance in general during the recent crisis has convinced leading educators the country over that henceforth illiteracy must be attacked with a definite and clear-cut policy until it is finally stamped out.

The amount or per cent of illiteracy varies greatly in different cities and states throughout the country, as the figures of Table 5 will show. For the United States as a whole, counting all persons ten years old or older, 7.7 per cent are illiterate. For the three Pacific Coast states this figure is 3.0 per cent, for the Mountain states it is 6.9 per cent, and for the state of Idaho it is but 2.2 per cent. Thus Idaho seems to be one of the highly favored states west of the Rockies. When we examine these figures more closely, we find that invariably illiteracy is greater in rural than in urban sections. In the state of Idaho 2.3 per cent of the rural people are illiterate, while the same figure for the urban population is but 1.7 per cent.

TABLE 5 Percentage of Illiteracy in the West (All persons lo years old or older — census of igio) Percentage of Population which is Illiterate

Section

Urban

Rural

United States

Mountain States

Pacific States

Ada Co., Idaho

CITY OF BOISE

7-7 6.9 3-0 2.2 2.9 4.1

5-1 31 2,0

1-7

10. 1 9.1 4-3 2.3

When we examine the Idaho statistics more carefully, however, we discover that Boise is the center at which a large part of the state's illiteracy is concentrated. This

Percentage of Illiteracy in Cities and Towns of Idaho

(All persons lo years old or older — census of 1910)

Per Cent of

Per Cent of

City

Population which is

City

Population which is

Illiterate

Illiterate

Twin Falls . . .

0.3

Idaho Falls . .

1.0

Pocatello ....

0.4

WaUace . . .

1-3

Moscow ....

0.4

Weiser ....

1.3

Lewiston ....

0.4

Nampa ....

1.4

Coeur d'Alene .

0.7

Caldwell. . . .

1-7

Sand Point . . .

I.O

BOISE ....

shows clearly when we compare the figures for the cities and towns of the state, as in Table 6, which shows clearly that the responsibility for freeing the state from the dangers of illiteracy rests mainly with the city of Boise. Just how large a burden this is as compared with that which other cities of this class are bearing may be seen from the diagram on page ii, which shows Boise's place among 26 cities of its own class. In this group Boise holds fifteenth place from the top, or roughly a midway position among cities of from 30,000 to 40,000 population in the United States.

This makes Boise's problem very clear. For the state, Boise must bear a large part of the responsibility for doing away with illiteracy. As compared with other cities that responsibility needs to involve only about an average effort and cost.

If at first thought the doing away with illiteracy, most of which is among adults, seems not to be a function of the school, then it is insisted here that in this respect the function of the American public school must be definitely

II

Percent illiterote I Colorado Springs 0.9 20rooKlineMflss.i.o| 3BelImghQmWM.f| 4TulsQ OKla.

Fig. 2. Per Cent oe Illiteracy in 26 Cities — All Persons 10 Years Old or Older (Census of 1910)

broadened to meet this great national issue. There is no reason why the public school should be for children only. It should be for all, old as well as young.

WEALTH AND OCCUPATIONS

As was pointed out above, Boise is a rapidly growing city. Its attractions are not wholly financial, however, and in wealth Boise does not rank close to the top among cities of its class. On the other hand, it does not rank especially low. Considering the present state of development, together with the rate of growth of the present and future sources of Boise's wealth, it is not unreasonable to expect the city to have a relatively large financial future. Being the political center and largest city, it is likely to continue to be the business center of the state. Its wealth increase will depend in large degree upon the development of the resources of the state, and this promises much, for as yet it can hardly be said that the state's resources have been touched. The great possibilities are agriculture, timber, and minerals. The 1910 census report showed the following occupational distribution of the inhabitants of the state who were ten years old or older:

Engaged in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry . . . . 43 . 3 per cent

" " extraction of minerals 5.2 "

" " manufacturing and mechanical industries 17.6 " ,

" " transportation 9.1 "

" trade 8.2 "

" " professional service 5.2 "

" " domestic and personal service 7.1 "

" " clerical occupations 2.5 "

" " public service not included above 0.9 "

Total 99 . 1 per cent

A similar up-to-date distribution would likely vary slightly from this, but that the same fields would dominate there is little doubt. During the last three census periods the amount of land in the state devoted to agriculture has increased at the rate of two million acres per decade, and the indication of recent statistics is that this rate has continued.^

It is in respect to these and similar facts about the re-

1 See Third and Fourth Annual Reports of the Department of Farm Markets, State of Idaho, 1917-1918, Boise, Idaho.

sources of the state and their use and development that public education in the state must direct no small portion of its energy.

In actual wealth Boise's position among the cities of her own class is indicated clearly by Table 7, on page 14.

While Boise's position is somewhat below the average, it is still not a poor city, and its position is likely to become better as the state develops. In other words, Boise's financial position does not argue that the city should not come up to the average in expenditures for education.

HOW THE CITY SPENDS ITS MONEY

I. Boise's Income

There is wide diversity among cities as to the ways in which they obtain and expend their revenues, and from the standpoint of education as well as from that of business this is a question of importance. Boise has an assessed valuation of over twenty millions of dollars and in 191 7 levied a tax of over a half million. This money was derived from the following sources:

Taxes on property 59.8 per cent

Business and non-business licenses 1.3 "

Special assessments and special outlays 23 . 6 "

Earnings of general departments 2.0 "

Earnings of public service enterprises i . o "

To raise this sum the city levied a tax of $27.75 ^^ each $1000 of assessed wealth, or $18.04 on each $1000 of real wealth. This means that it cost the people $19.16 per capita to run their government.

Is this a high tax rate and is this a high cost of government? The answer is seen in Table 8, which shows the facts for 26 cities.

Assessed Wealth and Real Wealth Per Capita Population ^

City

Assessed Wealth

Basis of

Assessed Wealth

Real Wealth

I.

3- 4-

s.

7- 8.

lO.

II.

12. 14.

17. 18. 19.

21. 22.

23- 24.

Brookline, Mass. . . .

Stockton, Calif. . . .

Charleston, W. Va. . .

Columbia, S. C. ...

Shreveport, La. . . .

Stamford, Conn. . . .

Niagara Falls, N. Y. .

Colorado Springs, Colo.

Wilmington, N. C. . .

Easton, Penn

Zanesville, Ohio . . .

Knoxville, Term. . . .

Austin, Texas ....

BOISE, IDAHO . .

Bellingham, Wash. . .

Everett, Wash. . . .

Portsmouth, Va. . . .

Newport, Ky

$3923.58

767.66

1809. 14

1190.33

455-42

637-31

280.39

1012.35

1095.53

577-01

753-67

1056.35

1003.14

771.62

997.92

645.06

689.39

558.14

405-57 522.04

100%

35-30

94-78

25 40

23 100

90 100

70 100 100

75 100

50 100

55 80

1095.53

1088.61

1076.67

1003.14

1002.49

997.92

925-88

919.18

858. 14

From this table it will be seen that the highest rate, based on estimated real value rather than on assessed value, was paid at Everett, Washington, and that the lowest was paid at Columbia, South Carolina, and that Boise occupied a median position. Considering the fact that Boise occupies

1 From Financial Statistics of Cities, etc., 191 7, above cited.

Tax Rate and Per Capita Cost of City Government

(United States Census Statistics of 191 7)

City

17. Wihnington, N. C. .

22. Stockton, Calif. . . . 27,. Easton, Pa

26. Columbia, S. C. . . .

Average 26 Cities . .

Rate of Levy of General

Property Taxes per

Assessed Valuation

$50-60 32.20 27.27

27.75

Estimated True Value

Per Capita Cost of All Government

$52.18

40.93 13.64

25.44 12.26

25.47 29.02 a much lower position among these cities in point of per capita wealth (see Table 7), we should expect her to hold a higher than median rank in tax rate if she gave her children average school advantages. We must not fail to see, too, that the western cities, with which Boise is especially comparable, have a higher rate than has Boise. All together this argues plainly that Boise could have a somewhat higher tax rate without doing more than other cities of her class are doing.

2, Distribution of Expenditures

A further question of importance is. How are the city's revenues used? In column three of Table 8 above it will be seen that Boise's per capita cost of government is very much lower than that for most of the cities included in this group. In fact, but 5 of the 26 cities pay less per capita for government than does Boise. How, then, one may ask, does Boise spend her money?

Figure 3 shows a full statement of how Boise spends each dollar of her revenues. From this it will be seen that 46.9 cents out of each dollar goes to maintain schools, 7.8 cents to govern the city, 16.9 cents to protection of person and property, etc.

In these important items of expenditure it is important to locate Boise's position among the cities of her class. This is brought out clearly by Table 9, which shows for 26 cities the per cent of total city expenditures devoted to the three important items of education, general government, and police protection.

In expenditure for education Bellingham, Washington, holds the highest place, devoting 63.7 per cent of her total expenditures to schools; Columbia, South Carolina, holds the lowest place, with 20.3 per cent; and Boise the fourth place from the top, with 46.9 per cent. In expense for government the range is from 14.6 per cent in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to 6.4 per cent in Madison, Wisconsin. This figure

PROTECTION OF PERSONe^PffOPERTY/ 16.94

H/OHW/JYS 17.94

ONE

'GENERfiL feOVERNMENT. 7.84^

-Sec^TioN ZH

EDuc/rrioN

46.44

Fig. 3. How Boise Spends Its Dollar

for Boise is 7.8 per cent. As was shown in Table 8, Boise spends relatively less on her government than is spent by any of these 26 cities. In cost of police protection Boise holds the lowest place, devoting only 4 per cent of her total expenditures to this item, while other cities range as high as 16.4 per cent.

It must be said, then, that Boise spends her income wisely. Indeed, the city occupies an enviable position in the matter of spending the money which it derives from taxes, and we i8

Percentage of City Expenditures Devoted to Education,

General Government, and Police Protection

(Financial Statistics of Cities, United States Census Bureau, 191 7)

City

Per Ceht to Education

Per Cent to

General Government

Per Cent to

Police Protection

14. Austin, Tex

16 NewDort Kv. . . .

63.7 56.2 48.6 46.9

46.5 46.2

45-3 44.8

44.7 42.8

20.3

8.1 8.7 9-3 7.8

13-4 7.6

7.9 14.6

7.4

6.4

9-3

10.8

10.7

8.4 12.0 12.4

8.3 10. 1

8.0 14. 1

6.2

6.8 10.7

9.1 16.4 can only advise the people of Boise to maintain that reputation, keeping Bellingham's high mark in percentage spent on schools and a somewhat higher tax rate, as suggested above, as desirable marks yet to attain.

THE PROBLEM STATED

Keeping in mind the more modern conception of the school, and of the place and function of education in society, viz.: that the school is not to be isolated from other social interests; that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic are not its sole functions ; that education has as much to do with real occupations, real civic and social duties and obligations, real people, real things, and real conduct of men in a real society as it has to do with books and theories; and finally that educational opportunities should be available for old as well as young, let us set forth the general suggestions that are brought out by the above social, geographical, and economic facts about Boise.

1. Boise is a rapidly growing city, (i) She must therefore erect buildings, purchase equipment, develop library facilities, and organize her teaching and supervision forces with this rapid expansion in mind. (2) She should adopt a pay-as-you-go policy and keep bonded indebtedness at a relatively low mark.

2. The population of the city is mainly and increasingly of native stock. ( i ) This means that the schools are largely free from the educational burden and from the attending cost of caring for a large foreign element. (2) This should make possible relatively higher standards of cost in other lines than obtain in cities with large numbers of foreign children. (3) It should also make possible relatively high standards of achievement among the pupils.

3. The city ranks high in young and middle-aged adults and low in infant and aged dependants, also low in children of school age. ( i ) This means that the city has a relatively lighter burden to bear in providing schools, and a relatively high earning power to care for the cost, (2) which argues that Boise could spend considerably more per pupil for schools than is spent by the average city of her class and still be making no more than average sacrifice to education.

4. In point of wealth Boise is slightly less than an average city of her class but with fair prospect of bettering her position. In view of other facts, — the racial homogeneity of her people, the relatively small school population, and the relatively large percentage of young adults, — this position with respect to per capita wealth does not argue for low expenditure per pupil for schools. Instead, it should argue for a slightly higher than average tax rate for schools.

5. In the matter of illiteracy Boise, though in a highly favored section of the country, occupies only a median position among cities of her class, and is unquestionably the center of illiteracy for the state. This calls loudly for night schools and continuation education as a feature of the city's school system.

6. In occupations the city is essentially a residence community, but it is located in the midst of a rich undeveloped agricultural district and is the political and business center of the state. This calls especially for strong agricultural and commercial departments as well as for good average mechanical departments in the high school.

7. The city taxes its wealth at a relatively low rate for cities of that class. Considering its low per capita wealth, one would expect a relatively high tax rate if the city means to have as good schools as are maintained by other cities.

8. The city spends a relatively high proportion of its income on education. This shows good management and indicates that the people of the city want and will support a strong constructive educational policy.

In a word, then, the city is able to have the best, and is morally responsible to a wide territory to furnish a demonstration of the best that can be worked out in educational practice in that part of the United States. What the city has to show, the extent to which it is exercising such leadership, and the way it is meeting its educational problems, we shall try to answer in the following chapters.