The essentials of poultry raising; a textbook for vocational agricultural schools

Front matter

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Contents

Chapter. Page.

I. The History of Poultry and the Poultry Industry ... 9

II. The External Structure of the Fowl 14

Chapter I The History Of Poultry And The Poultry Industry

' 1. The Origin of the Fowl. From biblical history we learn that fowls are probably as old as man himself. The modern fowl originated from the Gains Bankiza, which apparently was first observed on the Isle of Banca near Borneo.

2. Kinds of Fowls. At the present time there are several hundred kinds of fowls, varying in size from the bantam, weighing but a few ounces, to the large Brahma, weighing twelve to fourteen pounds. In addition to those fowls commonly called chickens, there are water fowls, such as geese and ducks, and turkeys, guineas, and pigeons, all of which are raised and kept to furnish people with food in the form of eggs and meat.

3. Poultry in America. There have been developed in America many breeds of fowls, such as the Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte, and Plymouth Rock. America is the home of the turkey and of the Cayuga duck.

4. Purposes for Which Poultry Is Kept in America. In America there are three kinds of poultry keepers, as follows: first, farmers who keep small flocks for both eggs and meat; second, city people who keep a few hens on the back lot for eggs and occasionally for meat as well ; and, third, the commercial poultryman who keeps hens for the production of eggs for market.

5. Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. The poultry products in the United States amount to over a billion dollars annually.

io The Essentials of Poultry Raising

6. How the Surplus Eggs Are Marketed. Eggs are sold directly to the consumer by the producer on the town lot or the farm, or by the commercial poultryman. They are sold to stores or traded for groceries or dry goods for the family, and the grocer in turn sells them to the consumer or to the city commission man in case lots. The grocer also sells to hotels and restaurants as well as to commission men. In many communities, clubs are formed and a business agent is selected ; the eggs are collected at one point, graded, placed in thirty dozen cases, and sold to city commission men or directly to consumers' circles in the cities.

7. Fattening Establishments for Poultry. Throughout the United States there are many centers where poultry fattening plants, with capacities of 10,000 to 50,000 fowls, receive young chickens, mostly cockerels, weighing from two to three pounds each. These young birds are fed a fattening mixture or feed for a period of fourteen days and are then killed, dressed, placed in cold storage, and sold according to grade. Many car lots and case lots are shipped to different points, especially to the large cities. In many of these establishments the birds are fed ground feed with buttermilk. The milk gives the birds an excellent flavor, and in markets like New York city such birds, when dressed, bring five cents per pound more than those not milk fed.

8. How Fattened Poultry Is Marketed. In many of the larger towns there are commission merchants who buy eggs and poultry and ship them to the city markets. In some of these towns the large packing establishments, such as Armour and Company and Swift and Company, have buying offices. From these places the poultry and eggs are sent to the packing houses, where the eggs are stored and the fowls are fattened, slaughtered, and kept in coolers till times of scarcity.

9. Storage for Dressed Poultry and Eggs. The bulk of the eggs are laid by the hens in the months between February and

July, and most of the young fowls for market are raised in the months from April to September. Some means of preserving a part of this food from the season of plenty to the season of scarcity is essential. To meet this need, large storage buildings have been constructed of brick or cement and have been provided with rooms that are kept at the proper temperature for preserving eggs or dressed poultry for several months.

10. Eggs in Car Lots. Buyers of large quantities of eggs in large cities ship eggs in car lots. These cars hold 400 (or more) thirty-dozen cases of eggs. The cars are refrigerated, with ice compartments at each end of the car which are kept filled with ice. The cars are shipped to the large northern cities, such as New York and Boston. A string of cars containing eggs and dressed poultry is constantly going from the West to the East over the regular railway routes. Thus there are local commission merchants who buy eggs from the producer in dozen lots, larger city commission merchants who buy only in thirty-dozen case lots, and still larger dealers who buy eggs only in car lots.

11. Turkey Production. In many of the middle western states large numbers of turkeys are raised. In some places, especially in Texas, they are driven to market on foot. Turkeys are raised principally for holiday dinners, especially Thanksgiving and Christmas.

12. Duck Production. In many places large numbers of ducks, principally of the White Pekin variety, are raised for broilers. This is a very profitable venture on Long Island, where over one and a half million ducks are raised every year for the Jewish trade of New York city.

13. Capon Production. Capons are produced quite extensively in many sections. The soft "roasters" of the south shore of Massachusetts and the Philadelphia capons, produced by the farmers of New Jersey, have become especially well known.

14. The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. In 1912 the poultry products ot the United States were greater than the wheat or potato crop. They were greater than the total hog or mule production and equal to two-thirds of the hay crop, to 70 per cent of the value of all milk cows, and to 73 per cent of that of all other cattle.

15. Poultry in Other Countries. Great Britain has been one of the leading countries in the production of poultry. She has developed many useful breeds: the Dark Cornish, the Orpingtons, and the Sussex. South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand are well advanced in poultry raising. The blood of many of the best breeds is traced to China.

16. Egg Production Records. Apparently Australia holds the world's record for high egg production. An Orpington hen laid 334 eggs in one year. America has produced a Single-Comb White Leghorn, Lady Eglantine, who laid 314 eggs in 365 days

Chapter II The External Structure Of The Fowl

Note to Teacher : The student is to mount a feather from each part of the plumage of a male bird.

17. The bird is divided into the following principal parts : head, neck, back, saddle, tail, wing, breast, and body.

The head is divided into comb, face, wattles, eye, beak. The comb may be single comb, rose comb, v-shaped comb, or pea comb. The single comb has a base which attaches the comb to the top of the head. It is provided with a blade and small spikes projecting upward from the comb. Some breeds of fowls have five spikes, others six. The rose comb has a fleshy body attached to the top of the head. It has a flat top, provided with many small spikes projecting upward and a large spike projecting backward. The v-shaped comb, as the name implies, is shaped like the letter v. The pea comb consists of three small single combs arranged side by side, with the two outer combs low and the middle one slightly above the other two. The face is the unfeathered part at the side of the head. The wattles are the two flat, leaf-like structures hanging pendant from the under portion of the lower jaw or mandible. The eyes and ears are located on the side of the head in the region of the face. The ear lobe is a fleshy mass extending downward from the ear opening. It is smooth and its color is either red or white, according to the breed of the fowl. The beak consists of an upper part, or upper mandible, and a lower part, or lower mandible.

18. The neck is divided into the neck hackle and the cape. The cape is the lower and outer edge of the neck hackle and resembles a cape,

Fig. 3. THE SECTIONS OF THE MALE FOWL.

1, beak; 2, nostril; 3, comb; 4, crest of head; 5, face; 6, eye; 7, ear; 8, ear-lobe; 9, wattle; 10, hackle, neck; 11, front of hackle; 12, breast; 13, cape; 14, shoulder; 15, wing bow; 16, wing front; 17, wing coverts, wing bar ; 18, secondaries, wing bay ; 19, primaries, flights ; 20, primary coverts; 21, back; 22. saddle; 23, saddle feathers; 24, sickles; 25, smaller sickles ; 26, tail coverts ; 27, main tail feathers ; 28, body feathers ; 29, fluff ; 30, thigh; 31, hock; 32, shank; 33, spur; 34, ball of foot; 35, toe; 36, toe nail. (R. P. J.)

19. The back is that portion between the hackle and the saddle.

20. The saddle is located in that portion between the back and the tail. In the male it is provided with long flowing hackle feathers somewhat resembling the neck hackle.

21. The tail is divided into the main tail, sickle, and covert feathers. The main tail feathers consist of a row of stiff large feathers, arranged in v-shape, just under the sickle and covert feathers. The sickle feathers are the large curved feathers extending over the top of the tail. At the base of the sickle and main tail feathers there are smaller feathers that cover the base of the first two.

22. The wing is divided into the following parts : front, bow, bar, secondaries, primaries, bay, and coverts. The wing bow is the upper and outer third of the wing when folded and looks like a bow. The wing bar is located just back of the wing bow and in some breeds makes a distinct bar. The secondaries are the large stiff feathers located on the part of the wing nearest the body, and the ten large stiff feathers on the outer end of the wing are the flight or primary feathers. In some birds, when the wing is folded, there is noted a three-cornered white space at the back portion of the folded wing: this is called the wing bay. The flight coverts are small, stiff feathers which cover the roots of the flight feathers.

23. The front part of the bird below the cape or hackle is the breast.

24. The sides of the bird constitute the body proper, and the posterior part is occupied by the cushion or vent fluff.

25. The leg is divided into the thigh, knee, tibia or drum-stick, hock, shank, spur, foot, toes, and claws. The thigh is the femur or that region around the first bone of the leg. The knee is the first joint of the leg. The tibia or drum-stick is the second bone of the leg, sometimes incorrectly called the thigh. The hockis the second joint of the leg. The shank is the unfeathered portion of the leg or the bone below the hock. The spur is located on the inner and lower third of the shank and is best developed in the male bird. The foot is provided with four toes, three extending forward and one backward. Each toe has a claw.

Chapter III How Poultry Is Classified *

Note to Teacher : The school flock and nearby pure-bred flocks should be visited for the purpose of studying breeds and varieties. Among the first things to be taught are the simple points whereby one differentiates between the breeds. Examples : The Wyandotte has a rose comb, while the Plymouth Rock has a single comb. An Orpington has a white beak and shanks, while the Plymouth Rock has a yellow beak and shanks. A Light Brahma has feathers on the shanks ; the Columbian Wyandotte has bare shanks.

26. National Poultry Organization. American poultry fanciers have formed an association called the American Poultry Association. This association determines the breeds and varieties of fowls : which shall be recognized as pure-bred fowls and worthy of being called Standard Bred.

27. American Standard of Perfection. The American Poultry Association publishes a book called The American Standard of Perfection. This publication gives the classification of all breeds and varieties recognized by the American Poultry Association.

28. Classification of Poultry. In the classification of poultry the following terms are used : class, breed, and variety. Thus a Barred Plymouth Rock would be classified as follows :

Class Breed Variety

American Plymouth Rock Barred

29. Class. By class is meant the country in which the breed was developed. Example : the Plymouth Rock was developed

* For reference book as to details of Breeds and Varieties, see The American Standard of Perfection, published by the American Poultry Association.

For reference to History of Breeds, see Poultry Culture Sanitation and Hygiene, published by W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

in America, hence it is placed in the American class. The Dark Cornish was developed in England and therefore it is in the English class.

Fig. 4. A BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK COCKEREL AND THE

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(Bred at North Carolina State College plant.)

This bird is considered the best type and color.

30. Breed. By breed is meant the type, or shape, of the bird. Thus we speak of the Plymouth Rock type, or the Wyandotte type.

31. Variety. By variety is meant the feather pattern, or type of comb, or both. Example : the Single-Comb Rhode Island Red

Fig. 5. A PAIR OF INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS.

(Bred by Patton, Charlotte, N. C.)

These ducks are raised principally for eggs.

and the Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red ; the White Plymouth Rock, or the Barred Plymouth Rock.

32. Type and Variety. All varieties of the same breed have the same shape or type.

33. Some of the Most Common Fowls. Among the most common standard-bred fowls are the Single-Comb Rhode Island ifl

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Fig. 6. A PEN OF PRIZE-WINNING LIGHT BRAHMAS. (Bred by J. A. Pons, Asheville, N. C.) The Light Brahmas belong to the Asiatic class. They are chiefly raised for meat.

Red, Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red, Barred Plymouth Rock, White Plymouth Rock, and White Wyandotte — all belonging to the American class. Of the English class there are the White Orpington, Buff Orpington, and Dark Cornish, The Single-

Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca belong to the Mediterranean class.

34. Common Varieties of Turkeys. One of the most common varieties of turkey is the Bronze. The male Bronze turkey at two years old should weigh thirty-six pounds, and the hen twenty pounds.

Fig. 7. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN.

(From Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.)

The Plymouth Rocks belong to the general purpose or utility class of fowls. They are raised for both eggs and meat.

35. Common Varieties of Geese. One of the most common varieties of geese is the Toulouse. The gander should weigh twenty-five pounds, and the goose twenty pounds.

36. Common Varieties of Ducks. The White Pekin duck is raised most generally for meat. It has white feathers and a yellow skin. It will reach a weight of about six pounds at ten weeks old. The young duck raised for market is called a broiler duck. The adult duck should weigh eight pounds and the adult drake nine pounds. 37. Indian Runner Ducks. Some varieties of ducks are kept

Fig. 8. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE. (North Carolina Experiment Station.)

for egg production alone. The Indian Runner is the best egg producer, often laying close to 300 eggs in a single year. The Indian Runner drake should weight four and one-half pounds at one year old, and the duck should weigh four pounds at one year old.

Fig. 9. A DARK CORNISH HEN.

(Bred by Ward, New Jersey.)

The Cornish is raised for meat. Note the full broad breast.

Fig. 10. A TWO-YEAR-OLD WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE. (Bred by North Carolina State College.) This is a utility bird.

Fig. 11. A FIRST PRIZE WINNING SINGLE-COMB RHODE ISLAND MALE BIRD.

The Rhode Island Reds are one of the best utility breeds.

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Chapter IV How To Select Birds For Breeding

Note to Teacher : The class should be taken to the school and nearby flocks to study constitutional vigor. As this study will come in the fall, the summer flocks should still be available.

38. Purposes for Which Birds Are Kept. Birds are kept for egg production, meat production, utility (general purposes), or for ornamental purposes.

39. Egg Production. The Single-Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca have been bred for high egg production and are among the most common breeds kept for the laying of eggs. The small body of the Single-Comb White Leghorn makes her the best and most economical egg producer. She will consume about ten pounds less feed for body maintenance than the birds of larger breeds. By proper selection, the larger breeds can also be bred up to very high egg production.

40. The power of high egg production is transmitted by both the male and female birds.

41. Meat Production. Some breeds are raised particularly for meat production because the quality of their meat is superior to that of other breeds. The Dark Cornish (Fig. 9) is one of the best of the meat breeds.

42. Qualities of a Meat Fowl. A meat fowl should have a deep keel, well fleshed over, making a round, plump breast. The skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch.

43. Utility Fowls. Utility or general-purpose fowls are raised for both egg production and for meat. They are especially recommended for the farm, where both eggs and meat are desired in fairly large quantities. The Barred Plymouth Rock,

White Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Buff Orpington are among the utility breeds.

44. Ornamental Fowls. Some fowls are raised largely because of their beauty. Among the ornamental fowls are the White-

Fig. 13. A graph showing that a flock of common hens bred to common males produced pullets which laid approximately as many eggs as their mothers. The mothers (1) averaged 89 eggs per hen per year and their daughters from the common males (2) laid an average of 92 eggs each. These same mothers, bred to males that were from high egg producing hens for many generations (4), produced pullets that laid an average of 135 eggs per hen per year (5). or an increase of 35 per cent. This was brought about by the high egg production males. Brothers of these pullets (6) were bred to the common pullets from the first mating (3), and the pullets (7) from this mating laid an average of 122 eggs per hen per year, or an increase of 24 per cent in Qgg production. This lesson tells us that high egg production is transmitted by the male to his daughters and that the male also transmits high egg production to his sons and his sons to their daughters. (North Carolina Experiment Station.)

Crested Black Polish and the Japanese Bantams. The other Bantams are placed by some authorities among the ornamental fowls.

45. Selection of the Male Bird for Breeding. The male should possess all the characteristics of his breed and variety and should have an abundance of vitality.

46. Indications of Vigor. The crow of the male should be strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the hens marked, and his comb and wattles well-developed. Red

Fig. 14. A utility Single-Comb White Leghorn. This bird is of good constitutional vigor. Note well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the bright eye. This bird laid 223 eggs in one year. (North Carolina Experiment Station.)

comb and wattles and a readiness to banter and to crow at the sight of a new male are indications of health.

47. Selection of the Hen for Breeding. The hen should show the. characteristics of her sex, with a refinement of the head and body not noted in the male,

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48. Indications of Health and Vigor. The hen should be industrious. She should be scratching, foraging, and singing a considerable part of the time. A red comb, face, and wattles, and a marked happiness indicate health.

Fig. 15. A cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, showing weak constitutional vigor. This hen laid 36 eggs in one year. Note lack of development of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the dull eye. (Cornell.)

49. Age of Breeders. Select only mature birds for breeding. Birds should be up to standard weight.

50. Age for Mating. It is preferable to breed from birds that

The Essentials of Poultry Raising 3T

are more than a year old. If pullets or cockerels must be bred from, it is preferable to mate the old male to pullets and the young m^le to hens. If pullets and cockerels must be mated together, they should be mature, that is, hatched early.

51. Objects of Poultry Breeding on the Farm. The objects of breeding poultry on the farm are : first, to bring a flock of mixed breeding up to a level with the best individuals of that flock, and, second, to fix certain characteristics, such as large egg production. In breeding poultry we wish to fix the following characteristics : constitutional vigor, high fertility, high egg production, early maturity, besides other characteristics which the breeder may desire, such as a particular feather pattern.

52. Lack of Constitutional Vigor. The lack of constitutional vigor is indicated by lack of proper development of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobes, and body. Such a bird is easily cowed by other birds.

53. Good Constitutional Vigor. Good constitutional vigor is shown by a well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, and body. The bird stands squarely on its feet. In males, vigor is noted by the crow, attentiveness to the hens, and readiness to banter and to fight when a strange male comes around. (Compare Figs. 14 and 15.)

54. Length of Time After Mating Fowls Before Saving Eggs for Hatching. If hens have not been running with male birds before being mated, eggs may be saved for hatching purposes at the end of six days. If the hens have been running with males before being mated, it will be necessary to wait twenty days before saving eggs for hatching.

55. Selecting Turkeys for Breeding. Select turkeys of good size. Turkeys for breeding should be mature, of good weight, and of good constitutional vigor. Do not breed from birds with deformed backs, crooked breasts, or wrytails.

56. Selecting Ducks for Breeding. The largest specimens should be selected. The drake is considered at his best the first two years of his life. The duck should be more than two years old for breeding purposes.

57. How to Distinguish Sex of Ducks. The drake seldom quacks and has a harsh voice. The drakes are usually larger than the ducks and have a curled feather at the front and top part of the tail.

58. Selecting Geese for Breeding. The gander may be used the first season, but the goose should not be used as a breeder until she is one year old.

59. Number of Females to Mate to Each Male. Among the larger breeds of fowls ten to twelve hens may be mated to one male. Young males will take more females than old males. In the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, twelve to fifteen females may be given each male. One male turkey may be mated to as many as fifteen females. One gander may be mated to two or three geese. One drake may be mated to four or five ducks.

60. Results of Crossbreeding. Do not crossbreed, as the second generation will be scrubs. Scrubs do not produce eggs that are uniform in shape, color, and size, and the birds are never uniform in color or size. If a product is not of the best quality, the producer will not receive the highest market price for it. Study Fig. 16 for results of crossbreeding.

The first year a Single-Comb White Leghorn was mated with Light Brahma females and the progeny were uniform. The second year these birds were mated together and the progeny of this second breeding were nothing but scrubs, producing eggs and birds of different shapes and sizes. This always happens. Never crossbreed. Always breed pure-bred poultry ; then your product will be uniform and you will receive the best prices.

Fig. 16. TWO YEARS FROM PURE BRED TO MONGRELS.

S. C. W. Leghorn. The First Cross.

Light Brahma.

Result First Cross (P Generation).

Result F 1 Generation Cross (F 2 Generation).

Chapter V How To Select Laying Hens

Note to Teacher : The class should be taken to the school and nearby docks to practise taking measurements and for observation of the other characteristics indicating good and poor layers. Allowance must also be made for fingerbreadths, as the standard fingerbreadth is based on the fingers of the average-sized man.

61. When to Cull Hens. Hens should be culled each year in July or August, or as soon thereafter as possible.

62. Physical Condition of Laying Hens. In order that a hen may lay well, she must have a sound body. The bird must be vigorous and healthy. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, an active disposition, and a well-developed body.

63. Physical Condition of Poor Laying Hens. £oor laying hens are shy, while good layers are tame and easily handled. A poor laying hen goes to perch early. Her toe nails are long, indicating that she has not been scratching like the good layer. The poor layer usually is the last bird to leave the perch in the morning.

64. Physical Defects. Laying hens should be free from such physical defects as a crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly legs, or anything that would tend to keep the bird from getting an abundance of feed.

65. In the yellow-skinned birds, such as the Leghorn, Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte, the yellow color fades out as laying goes on. Skin tests cannot be carried on in birds with a white skin.

66. Bleaching of Beak and Shanks. In Leghorns the beak will be entirely bleached by the time the bird has laid thirty eggs. The shanks will be bleached out by the time the bird has laid sixty eggs.

67. Conditions of Vent The vent of a laying hen is soft, flabby, large, moist, and white. In a non-laying hen the vent is hard, dry, small, and yellow.

68. Body Changes Due to Laying. As a hen comes into laying, the ovary, in which the yolk of the 'egg is formed, becomes very much enlarged. The oviduct, where the albumin or white of the egg is formed and where the shell is manufactured, likewise grows much larger. The intestines increase 30 to 40 per cent in length and bulk. All these increases in the bulk of the abdominal organs make changes in the bony relations necessary. The breast bone is drawn downward and its lateral processes are pushed downward and outward. The pelvic arches are widened.

69. Measurements. The distance between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones, or pubic bones, in a heavy laying hen is four or more fingers in breadth. If the measurement just referred to is four fingers in breadth, it indicates that the hen will, in all probability, lay over two hundred eggs and should be kept for a breeder. Allowance must be made for hens large in body, as the above measurements are estimates on White Leghorns. In a hen measuring four fingers in breadth between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones (pubic bones), the distance between the laybones, or pubic bones, will probably be three fingers in breadth. The measurement between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones is called capacity. The distance between the laybones is called pubic span.

70. Hens to Discard. Discard as layers all birds that measure less than three fingerbreadths in capacity and less than two fingerbreadths in pubic span.

71. Upward Tendency in Egg Production. Later, as more birds of the flock measure four fingers in breadth in capacity and three fingers in breadth in pubic span, discard all that do not measure more than three fingerbreadths in capacity and two fingerbreadths in pubic span,

72. External Sex Characteristics. The comb and wattles are sex organs.

73. Changes in External Sex Organs in Laying and in Non- Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, her comb grows congested, red, oily, very flexible, pliable, and soft. The wattles undergo similar changes. As the hen goes out of laying condition, the comb again shrinks, becomes dry, hard, covered with white scales, and stiff. On the day of laying, the comb will be hot to the touch.

74. The Abdomen of a Non-Laying Hen. In non-laying hens, the fat accumulates in the abdominal wall and the wall becomes hard to the touch.

75. The Abdomen in Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, the abdomen becomes soft and the skin velvety in texture.

76. Laying as a Pullet an Indication of Laying Qualities. The good laying hen begins to lay early as a pullet. Very heavy producers in the Leghorn breed will begin to lay at about five months of age. The poor layers begin very late, many of them not commencing until spring.