History of Europe, ancient and medieval: Earliest man, the Orient, Greece and Rome

Front matter

Class

Book_'R.

Goipglit)^^

Preface

General European history is one of the most perplexing subjects to deal with in the high school. It seems absolutely essential that boys and girls should have some knowledge of the whole past of mankind ; without that they can have no real understanding of the world in which they live, for the simple reason that the present can only be explained by the past. The older historical manuals were, in the main, short accounts of past events ; but it is really past conditions and past institutions and past ideas that are best worth knowing about. The older books tended, moreover, to give too much attention to the remote past and too little information in regard to recent histor\', so that there was little chance of the pupil's realizing the vital bearing of the past on the present.

The aim of these two volumes is to avoid the defects of the older books, first, by frankly subordinating the mere happenings of the past to a clear statement of the conditions under which men lived for long periods, of the ideas which they held, and of the manner in which conditions and ideas have undergone great changes in man's slow rise from his original savage estate ; secondly, by devoting about half of the work, namely, V'olume II, to the past hundred and fifty years, which concern us most immediately.

The arrangement of the volumes is novel in a number of respects. Each chapter is divided into several topical sections, as will be seen by consulting the Contents. The topics are, of course, arranged with strict attention to chronology, but the writers have always before them a particular subject which they aim to make plain under each section heading. In short, each section is a discussible topic and not a fragment of chronology. The authors hope that this plan of presentation will serve to make the books more useful and teachable than the older method of arrangement.

iii iv History of Europe

These volumes are based on the authors' "Outlines of European History," but Chapters I-XX have been completely rewritten, simplified, and condensed ; and more space has been given to Roman history and less to that of the ancient Orient. Hearty thanks are due to Dr. T. G. Allen and Professor Carl F. Huth for reading the proofs of this portion and for revising the bibliographies. As for the rest of the work, much condensation has been effected and the details of presentation have been reconsidered from beginning to end.

Not only have the illustrations been carefully chosen with a view of corroborating and vivifying the text but under each picture a sufficiently detailed legend is given to explain its significance, and this often adds materially to the information given in the letterpress. The pictures consequently give a sort of. parallel narrative and furnish a helpful supplement and corrective to the text itself. Everj^thing which does not obviously bear upon the chief matters under consideration is sedulously excluded. (See "Outlines of European History," Part I, p. v, for acknowledgments of the authors in this important matter.)

These volumes meet the growing demand for a two-yea.r course in European history in the earlier years of the high school and in the preparatory schools. The great achievements of the oriental peoples and of the Greek and Roman periods are brought into immediate relation with later European development, without devoting a whole year's study to them. English history, if somewhat briefly treated, is given its proper association with that of the neighboring nations on the Continent. By devoting the whole second year to the history of the tremendous changes which have overtaken the world since the middle of the eighteenth century, the student will be in a position to grasp the more immediate causes of the World War and the perplexing conditions in the midst of which we live.

J. II. B.

J. H. R.

Book I. Earliest Man

I. Earliest Max ix Europe

I. The Progress of Earliest Man i

II. The Early Stone Age 2

III. The Middle Stone Age 4

IV. The Late Stone Age 6

Book II. The Orient

II. The Story of Egypt

I. Egypt and the Rise of the Earliest Civilization 14

II. The Pyramid Age 20

III. The Feudal Age 29

IV. The Empire 31

V. The Higher Life of the Empire and its Fall 33

III. Western Asia: Babylonia, Assyria, .\xd Chaldea

I. The Lands and Races of Western Asia 39

II. The Earliest Babylonians and the Rise of Civilization in Asia 43

III. The Age of Hammurapi and After . 46

IV. The Assyrian Empire (about 750 to 606 B.C.) 50

V. The Chaldean Empire : the Last Semitic Empire 56

IV. Western Asia: the Medo-Persian Empire and the Hehrews

I. The Indo-European Peoples and their Dispersion 59

II. The Aryan Peoples and the Iranian Prophet Zoroaster ... 62

III. Rise of the Persian Empire: Cyrus 64

IV. The Civilization of the Persian Empire (about 530 to 330 k.c.) 66 V. The Hebrews 69

VI. Estimate of Oriental Civilization 74

Book III. The Greeks

V. The Dawn of European Civilization and the Rise of the Eastern Mediterranean World

I. The Dawn of Civilization in Europe 78

II. The /Egean World : the Islands 79

III. The .^gean World : the Mainland 82

v vi History of Europe

IV. The Coming of the Greeks 86

V. The Nomad Greeks make the Transition to the Settled Life . 89 VI. Greek Civilization in the Age of the Kings 91

VI. The Age of the Nobles and Greek Expansion in the Mediterranean I. The Disappearance of the Kings and the Leadership of the

Nobles * . 99

II. Greek Expansion in the Age of the Nobles 102

in. Greek Civilization in the Age of the Nobles 103

VII. The Industrial Revolution and the Age of the Tyrants

I. The Industrial and Commercial Revolution 108

II. Rise of the Democracy and the Age of the Tyrants . . . . in

III. Civilization in the Age of the Tyrants 115

VIII. The Repulse of Persia and the Rise of the Athe.man Empire

I. The Coming of the Persians 121

II. The Greek Repulse of Persians and Phoenicians 124

III. The Rivalry with Sparta and the Rise of the Athenian Empire 129

IX. Athens in the Age of Pericles

I. The Home, Education, and Training of Young Citizens . . 137 II. Higher Education, Science, and the Training gained by

State Service 139

III. Art and Literature 144

X. The Fall of the Athenian Empire

I. The Second Peloponnesian War 150

II. Third Peloponnesian War and Destruction of the Athenian

Empire 1 53

XI. The Final Conflicts among the Greek States and their Higher Life .\fter Pericles

I. Spartan Leadership and the Decline of Democracy .... 158

II. The Fall of Sparta and the Leadership of Thebes .... 160

III. Sculpture and Painting 161

IV. Religion, Literature, and Thought 162

XII. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age

I. The Rise of Macedonia 169

II. Campaigns of Alexander the Great 171

III. International Policy of Alexander: its Personal Consequences 175

IV. The Heirs of Alexander's Empire 177

V. The Civilization of the Hellenistic Age 179

'Contents vii

CHAPTER BOOJC IV. THE ROMANS

PAGE

XIII. The Western Mediterranean World and the Roman

Conquest of Italy

I. The Western Mediterranean World i8q

II. Earliest Rome ,q^

III. The Character of the Early Republic: its Progress and

Government jq^

IV. The Expansion of the Roman Republic and the Conquest

of Italy ,QO

XIV. The Roman Conquest of the Western Mediterranean

World

I. Italy under the Early Roman Republic 205

II. The Rising Rivalry between Rome and Carthage .... 207

III. The Struggle with Carthage: the Sicilian War, or First

Punic War 2jq

IV. The Hannibalian War (Second Punic War) and the Destruc-

tion of Carthage 211

XV. World Dominion and Degeneracy

I. The Roman Conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean World 218

II. RomanGovernmentandCivilizationinthe Age of Conquest 219

III. Degeneration in City and Country 224

XVI. A Century of Revolution and the End of the Republic I. The Land Situation and the Beginning of the Struggle

between Senate and People 230

II. The Rise of One-Man Power : Marius and Sulla .... 231

III. The Overthrow of the Republic : Pompey and Caesar . . 234

IV. The Triumph of Augustus.and the End of the Civil War . 240

XVII. The First Century of Peace: the Age of Augustus and the Successors of his Line I. The Rule of Augustus (30 b.c.-a. D. 14) and the Beginning

of Two Centuries of Peace 244

II. The Civilization of the Augustan Age 247

III. The Line of Augustus and the End of the First Century of

XVIII. The Second Century of Peace and the Civilization of the Early Roman Empire I. The Emperors of the Second Century of Peace (beginning

II. The Civilization of the Early Roman Empire : the Provinces 259 III. The Civilization of the Early Roman Empire : Rome . . 265

.J viii History of Europe

IV. Popularity of Oriental Religions and the Spread of Early

Christianity 270

V. Marcus Aurelius and the End of the Second Century of Peace 272

XIX. A Century of Revolutio.v and the IDivision of the Emim kk

I. Internal Decline of the Roman Empire 275

II. A Century of Revolution ". 278

III. The Roman Empire an Oriental Despotism 280

IV. The Division of the Ernpire and the Triumph of Christianity 283 V. Retrospect 286

BOO A' V. THE MIDDLE AGES

XX. The German Invasions and the Break-up of the Roman

Empire

I. Founding of Kingdoms by Barbarian Chiefs 289

II. Kingdom of the Franks 299

III. Results of the Barbarian Invasions 302

XXI. The Rise of the Papacy

I. The Christian Church 307

II. Origin of the Power of the Popes 311

XXII. The Monks and their Missionary Work; the Mohammedans

I. Monks and Monasteries 316

II. Missionary Work of the Monks 320

III. Mohammed and his Religion 322

XXIII. Charlemagne and his Empire

I. Conquests of Charlemagne 330

II. Establishment of a Line of Emperors in the West .... 334

III. How Charlemagne carried on his Government 336

XXIV. The Age of Disorder; Feudalism

I. The Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire 339

II. The Medieval Castle . ' 343

III. The Serfs and the Manor 346

IV. Feudal System 350

V. Neighborhood Warfare in the Middle Ages 353

XXV. England in the Middle .^ges

I. The Norman Conquest 357

II. Henry II and the Plantagenets 362

III. The Great Charter and the Beginnings of Parliament . . 369

IV. Wales and Scotland 373

V. The Hundred Year^' W^ar 376

Contents ix

XXVI. Popes and Emperors

I. Origin of the Holy Roman Empire 387

II. The Church and its Property -,30

III. The Long Struggle between Popes and Emperors ... 393

XXVII. The Crusades

I. Origin of the Crusades ....

II. The First Crusade ...

• • • 403

III. The Religious Orders of the Hospitalers and Templars . 406

IV. The Second and Later Crusad V. Chief Results of the Crusades

IV. The Second and Later Crusades ,08

BOOK VI. MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION

XXVIII. The Medieval Church at its Height

I. Organization and Powers of the Church 41^

II. The Heretics and the Inquisition 418

III. The Franciscans and Dominicans ,,i

IV. Church and State . .

•. • 425

XXIX. Medieval Towns — their Business and Buildings

I. The Towns and Guilds

II. Business in the Later Middle Ages \\<o

III. Gothic Architecture

IV. The Italian Cities of the Renaissance 448

V. Early Geographical Discoveries . . . ct

XXX. Books and Science in the Middle Ages

I. How the Modern Languages Originated 464

II. The Troubadours and Chivalry .^

III. Medieval Science

IV. Medieval Universities and Studies

V. Beginnings of Modern Inventions

VI. The Art of the Renaissance 8

BOOK VII. THE PROTESTANT REVOLT AND THE WARS

OF RELIGION

XXXI. Emperor Charles V and his Va.st Realms

I. Emperor Maximilian and the Hapsburg Marriages ... 488 II. How Italy became the Battleground of the European

Powers ....

III. Condition of Germany when Charles V became Emperor 498

X History of Europe

XXXII. Martin Luther and the Revolt of Germany against THE Papacy

I. The Question of Reforming the Church : Erasmus . . 500

II. How Martin Luther revolted against the Papacy ... 504

III. The Diet at ^Vorms (1 520-1 52 1) 510

IV. The Revolt against the Papacy begins in Germany . . 513

V. Division of Germany into Catholic and Protestant

Countries 515

XXXIII. The Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England

I. Zwingli and Calvin 520

II. How England fell away from the Papacy 523

III. England becomes Protestant 528

XXXIV. The Wars of Religion

I. The Council of Trent ; the Jesuits 532

II. Philip II and the Revolt of the Netherlands 536

III. The Huguenot Wars in France 542

IV. England under Queen Elizabeth 547

V. The Thirty Years' War 553

VI. The Beginnings of our Scientific Age 559

BOOK VIII. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH

CENTURIES

XXXV. Struggle in England between King and Parliament

I. James I and the Divine Right of Kings 565

II. How Charles I got along without Parliament 568

III. How Charles I lost his Head 572

IV. Oliver Cromwell : England a Commonwealth 576

V. The Restoration 581

VI. The Revolution of 1688 583

XXXVI. France under Louis XIV

I. Position and Character of Louis XIV 586

II. How Louis encouraged Art and Literature 589

III. Louis XIV attacks his Neighbors 592

IV. Louis XIV and his Protestant Subjects 594

V. War of the Spanish Succession 595

XXXVII. Russia and Prussia become European Powers

I. Beginnings of Russia 599

II. Peter the Great 602

III. Origin of the Kingdom of Prussia 604

IV. The Wars of Frederick the Great 609

V. Three Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, and 179s ... 612

Contents xi

CHAPTER

PAGE

VI. The Austrian Realms: Maria Theresa and Joseph II . 6i6 VII. Reforms of Frederick II. Catherine II, and Joseph II 619 XXXVIII. How England became Queen of the Ocean

I. England after the Revolution of 1688 625

II. The English Limited Monarchy in the Eighteenth

Century and George III 629

III. How Europe began to extend its Commerce over the

Whole World 5^2

IV. The Contest between France and England for Colonial

Empire ^^^

V. Revolt of the American Colonies from England ... 638

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... .

• • 667

LIST OF COLORED PLATES

Plate I page

RESTORATION OF THE GREAT PYRAMIDS AND OTHER TOMB MONUMENTS IN THE ANCIENT CEMETERY OF GIZEH,

EGYPT Frontispiece

Plate II

THE PLAIN OF ARGOS FROM THE CASTLE OF TIRYNS . . 84

Plate III

THE GREEK THEATER AT TAORMINA, WITH ITS ROMAN ADDITIONS 106

Plate IV

A CORNER OF THE PARTHENON ........ 1 44

Plate V

GREEKS AND PERSIANS HUNTING LIONS WITH ALEXANDER

THE GREAT 1 82

Plate VI

STREET SCENE IN CAIRO , 326

Plate VII

SCENES FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY 358

Plate VIII

PAGE FROM A BOOK OF HOURS, FIFTEENTH CENTURY . . 480

XU

LIST OF COLORED MAPS

PAGE

The Ancient Oriental World 42

Sequence Map showing Expansion of Oriental Empires (I to IV) ... 58

Palestine, the Land of the Hebrews 70

Greece in the Fifth Century b. c 90

Colonial Expansion of Greeks and Phoenicians 100

Central Greece and Athens 138

Empire of Alexander the Great 176

Italy and Adjacent Lands 192

Sequence Map showing Expansion of Roman Power ... to the Death of

Caesar (I to IV) 218

Sequence Map . . . of the Roman Empire from Death of Caesar (44 B.C.)

to Death of Diocletian (a.d. 305) (I and II) 26c

Roman Empire as organized by Diocletian and Constantine 282

Migrations of the Germans 292

Europe in the Time of Charlemagne 336

The British Isles 372

Europe about a.d. 1000 388

Routes of the Crusaders 404

Commercial Towns and Trade Routes, Thirteenth and Fourteenth

Centuries 436

Behaim's Globe, 1492 458

Europe about the Middle of the Sixteenth Century 496

Germany about 1550 506

Europe when Louis XIV began his Personal Government 586

Europe after the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt 592 xni

HISTORY OF EUROPE: ANCIENT • ' AND MEDIEVAL

Chapter I

I. The Progress of Earliest Man

1. Early Inventions and the Progress of Man. We all know that our fathers and mothers never saw an aeroplane when they were children, and very few of them had ever seen an automobile. Their fathers lived during most of their lives without electric lights or telephones in their houses. Their grandfathers, our great-grandfathers, were obliged to make all long journeys in stagecoaches drawn by horses, and some of them died without ever having seen a locomotive.

Each invention has grown out of earlier inventions, and each would have been impossible without the discoveries which preceded it. Thus, if we went back far enough, we should reach a point where no one could build a stagecoach or a wagon, because no one had invented a wheel or tamed a wild horse. Earlier still there were no ships and no travel or commerce by sea. There were no metal tools, for no one had ever seen any metal. It was impossible to write, for no one had invented writing, and so there were no books nor any knowledge of science ; and such institutions as schools and churches or even laws and government did not yet exist. This book is intended to tell the story of how mankind gained all these and many other things, and thus built up great nations which struggled among themselves for leadership, then weakened and fell. The earlier part of this story forms what we call ancient history.

2. The First Steps and the Earliest Ages of Human Progress. If we go back far enough in the story of man, we reach a time when he possessed nothing whatever but his bare hands with which to protect himself, satisfy his hunger, and meet all his other needs. He must have been without speech and unable even to build a fire. There was no one to teach him anything. The earliest men who began in this situation had to learn everything for themselves by slow experience and long effort, and every tool, however simple, had to be invented.

We cannot now trace all the different stages in his earliest progress ; but this, earliest progress brought to man two things without which he could have made no progress : the ability to speak and the means of kindling a fire (see Ancient Times, Fig. i). After this he gained a third invention of the greatest assistance to him. He sometimes found a broken stone and used its ragged edge to aid him in hacking off his meat or shaping his wooden club. He then found that he could improve the form of such a stone, and thus he gradually learned to shape a rude stone tool or^ weapon {Ancient Times, Fig. 2). At this point he entered what we now call the Stone Age, more than fifty thousand years ago.

From this point on we can hold in our hands the very stone implements which early men used. We can distinguish, in the examples of their handiwork which still survive, three successive ages, which we may call the Early Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, and the Late Stone Age.

II. The Early Stone Age

3. The Life of Early Stone Age Men. European savages entered the Early Stone Age over fifty thousand years ago — perhaps much earlier. In order to secure their food they followed the life of hunters, roaming about in the great forests which covered much of western Europe. In that distant age Europe possessed a tropical climate, and tropical animals filled its forests. Huge beasts like the hippopotamus wallowed along the banks of the rivers in the region which is now France and England. The fierce rhinoceros charged through the jungles. As the hunter fled before them he caught glimpses of gigantic elephants plunging through the thick tropical growth. At night he had no hut or shelter in which he might take refuge. He slept on the ground wherever he happened to be overtaken by darkness.

4. Earliest Flint Weapons and their Preservation. These early hunters gradually improved their first rough stone weapons and tools. They finally succeeded in producing what we now call a fist-hatchet (Fig. i). It was a roughly shaped piece of flint, with a ragged edge sharp enough to use for cutting and chopping. Sometimes such stone weapons were lost on river banks and were gradually covered by sand, gravel, and soil which has since collected there. Thus buried they are found to-day in large numbers along the rivers of England, Belgium, and France.

Along with them are often found the bones of the huge tropical animals we have mentioned, which long ago disappeared from their European haunts.

5. The Coming of the Ice. For thousands of years the life of the hunter went on with little change. He slowly improved his

Fig. I. A Flint Fist- Hatchet OF THE Early Stoxe Age

Rough flint flakes older than the fist-hatchet still survive to show us man's earliest efforts at shaping stone.

But the fist-hatchet is the earliest well-finished type of tool produced by man.

The original is about nine inches long, and the drawing reduces it to less than one third. Either end might be used as the cutting edge, but it was usually grasped in the fist by the narrower part, and never had any handle. Handles of wood or horn do not appear until much later (cf. Fig. 6, ^, j).

rough stone fist-hatchet, and he probably learned to make additional implements of wood, but of these last we know nothing. Then he began to notice that the air of his forest home was losing its tropical warmth. Geologists have not yet found out why, but as the centuries passed, the ice, which all the year round still overlies the region of the North Pole and the summits of the Alps, began to descend. The northern ice crept further and further southward until it covered England as far south as the Thames. The glaciers of the Alps pushed down the Rhone valley as far as the spot where the city of Lyons now stands. On our own continent of North America the southern edge of the ice is marked by lines of bowlders carried and left there by the ice. Such lines of bowlders are found, for example, as far south as Long Island and westward along the valleys of the Ohio and the Missouri.^ The hunter saw the glittering blue masses of ice, with their crown of snow, pushing through the green of his forest abode and crushing down vast trees in many a sheltered glen or favorite hunting ground. Gradually these savage men of early Europe were forced to accustom themselves to a colder climate, and many of the animals familiar to the hunter retreated to the warmer south, never to return.

III. The Middle Stone Age

6. Remains of Middle Stone Age Man in Caverns. The hunters were unable to build themselves shelters from the cold. They therefore took refuge in limestone caves, where they and their descendants continued to live for thousands of years. This period we call the Middle Stone Age. Century after century the sand and earth continued to blow into these caverns, and fragments of rock fell from the ceiling. Thus masses of rubbish accumulated

1 Geologists have now shown that the ice advanced southward and retreated to the north again no less than four times. Following each advance of the ice a warm interval caused its retreat. There were four warm intervals, and we are now living in the fourth. The evidence now indicates that men began to make stone implements in the third warm interval. The last advance of the ice therefore took place between us and them. It is perhaps some thirty thousand years ago that the ice began to come south for the last time. See map and diagram in Ancie?i/ Times, p. 8.

on the cavern floor, and in one case it was as much as forty feet deep. To-day we find among all this rubbish also many layers of ashes and charcoal from the cave-dweller's fire (see Ancient Times, Fig. 9), besides numerous tools, weapons, and implements which he used. These things disclose man's further progress, step by step, and show us that he had now left the old fist-hatchet far behind and become a real craftsman.

7. The Industries of Middle Stone Age Man. The tiny flint chips still found at the door of his cave show us how the hunter must have sat there carefully chipping the edges of his flint tools.

By this time he had a considerable list of tools from which he could select. At his elbow were knives, chisels, drills and hammers, polishers and scrapers, all of flint (Fig. 2). He could

Fig. 2.

Flint Tools and Weapons THE Middle Stone Age

OF

From right to left they include knives, spearand arrow-points, scrapers, drills, and various edged tools. They show great skill and precision in flaking. The fine edges have all been produced by chipping off a line of flakes along the margin, seen especially in the long piece at the right. This chipping was done by pressure. The brittleness of flint is such that if a hard piece of bone is pressed firmly against a flint edge, a flake of flint, often reaching far back from the edge, will snap off in response to increasing pressure. This was a great improvement over the earliest method by striking, or percussion (see Fig. i and Ancient Times, Fig. 2)

now produce such a

fine cutting edge by chipping (see Ancient Times, § 15) that he could work ivory, bone, and especially reindeer horn. With his enlarged list of tools he was able to shape pins.

2> needles, spoons, and ladles, all of ivory or bone, and carve them with pictures of the animals he hunted in the forest (Fig. 4). The fine ivory needles (Fig. 3) show that the hunter's body was now protected from cold by clothing sewed together out of the skins of the animals he had slain. He also fashioned keen barbed ivory spear points which he mounted, each on a long wooden shaft. He had also discovered the bow and arrow, and he carried at his girdle a sharp flint dagger.

8. Middle Stone Age Art. These Middle Stone Age hunters could not only draw (Fig. 4) but they could also paint with the

greatest skill. In the caverns of southern France and northern Spain their paint-

_ , ^, ings have been found in

Fig. 3. Ivory Needle of the '^ . .

Middle Stone Age surprising numbers in re-

^ , ,, , , .„ . . . cent years. Long lines of

Such needles are found still surviving in -^ '^

the rubbish in the French caverns, where bison, deer, or wild horseS the wives of the prehistoric hunters lost cover the walls and ceilings them and failed to find them again twenty ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ Sometimes thousand years ago. i hey show that these

women were already sewing together the they are only carved on the skins of wild animals as clothing j-QCk wall (Fig. 4, 2) ; but

many are painted in colors.

They are all startling in their lifelikeness and vigor. These paintings, — made at least ten thousand years ago, — together with the carvings on the hunter's ivory and bone weapons (Fig. 4, i, j, 4), form the earliest art in the whole career of man, in so far as we know.

IV. The Late Stone Age

9. Last Retreat of the Ice ; the Late Stone Age. At length the climate again grew warmer and became what it is to-day. The traces left by the ice would lead us to think that it withdrew northward for the last time probably some ten thousand years ago. Men of a different race from those of the Early and Middle Stone Ages had meantime invaded western Europe. These men had learned that it was possible to grind the edge of a stone ax or chisel (Fig. 6, 4) as we now do with tools of metal. They were also able to drill a hole in the stone ax head and insert a handle (Fig. 6, 5). The common use of the ground stone ax, after the retreat of the ice, brings in the Late Stone Age. Traces of the

Fig. 4. Drawings carved by Middle Stone Age Man on Ivory

/, marching line of reindeer with salmon in the spaces — probably a talisman to bring the hunter and fisherman good luck ; 2, a bison at bay (not on ivory but incised in the rock of a cavern wall ; over one hundred and fifty caverns containing such paintings and carvings are known in France and Spain) ; j, a grazing reindeer ; 4, a running reindeer. See

Ancient Times, Figs. 9, 10

villages and settlements of Late Stone Age man have been found throughout all Europe, except in the extreme north.

10. Progress of Late Stone Age Man. The life of Late Stone Age man gradually made progress in a number of very important matters. First, with their ground stone axes, hatchets, and chisels (Fig. 6) men could now build wooden huts. These wooden dwellings of the Late Stone Age (Fig. 5) are the earliest such shelters found in Europe. Sunken fragments of these houses are found all along the shores of the Swiss lakes, lying at the bottom, among the piles which supported the houses of the village. Second, such tools also enabled the lake-dwellers to make a great deal of wooden

Fig. 5. Restoration of a Swiss Lake-Dweller's Settlement