A general history of the Christian era ...

Front matter

Class Jll_LO,S5_ GopiglitN"

COPIRIGHr DEPOSIr.

2!_

Preface

This book is intended to serve as a textbook for Catholic high schools and colleges. Although the complete work was planned and is to be published in two volumes, the part here given to the public is so arranged as to form a book that can be used independently of the second volume.

In writing this General History the author has aimed to present a continuous and concise survey of the essential facts of the Christian era. In order to enable the teacher and student to complete the information given in the text, a general bibliography has been placed at the beginning of the book and a special bibliography appended to each chapter. It has not been deemed advisable to mention authorities in foreign languages, although the writer wishes to acknowledge here his indebtedness to some French and German works, particularly to the admirable Histoire Generate of Lavisse and Rambaud.

It is a pleasing duty for him to express his thanks to the Very Rev. Dr. Thomas E. Shields at whose suggestion and with whose encouragement the book was prepared, to the Right Reverend Thomas J. Shahan, D. D., for the kindly interest which, in spite of his many duties as Rector of the Catholic University, he has always taken in the progress of the work, to Professor W. R. Shepherd of Columbia University for his generous permission to reproduce maps from his valuable Historical Atlas, to Miss Helen Wright and Miss M. Elmira Bier of the Division of Prints of the Library of Congress for their repeated courtesies and services, and to other kind friends for generous help and valuable suggestions.

Nicholas A. Weber.

Washington, D. C.

On the Feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel July 16, 1919

Contents

Page

Introduction xxix

General Bibliography xxxii

Introductory Questions 3

Definition of History 3

Division of the History of the Christian Era 4

FIRST PERIOD, 1 TO 476

Chapter I The Christian Religion and the Roman World to the Year 476

I. Jesus Christ; the Christian Religion

Preparation of the World for the Coming of Christ 7

Jesus Christ is Born at Bethlehem 8

Jesus rises from the Dead ; His Doctrine ... 9

Pentecost and the Spread of the Christian Religion 1

Saint Peter and Saint Patil 11

II. State of the World at the Introduction of the Chris-

tian ReHgion.

Estabhshment of the Roman Empire by Augustus

The City of Rome under Augustus 13

The Provinces under Augustus 14

Religion in Rome at the Beginning of Christianity 14

III. Conflict between Christianity and the Roman State

The Persecutions of the Christians; Their General

Cause, Number and Division 15

The Persecution under Nero (64-68) 16

The Persecution under Decius (249-251) ... 17

The Persecution under Diocletian (303-305) . . 18

IV. End of the Conflict: Constantine grants Freedom

to the Churcli (313) Constantine and t lie Battle of the IMilvian Bridge

The Edict of Milan (313) 20

ix

X THE CHRISTIAN ERA

V. Church and State from 313 to 476

The ReHgious Policy of Constant ine after 313 . 21

Const antine and Licinius 22

Arianism; the Council of Nice (325) 22

Julian the Apostate (361-363) and his Attempt at

a Pagan Restoration 23

Julian's Opposition to Christianity 24

Theodosius I, the Great 379-395; Christianity becomes the State Religion 24

Power of the Catholic Clergy — Penance of Theodosius 25

Ecclesiastical Organization • . . . 26

Chapter II

The Emperors from Tiberius to Commodus (14-192). Their Internal Administration

The Dynasties of the First Two Centuries 28

I. The Julian Dynasty

The Emperors Caligula (3 7-4 1 ) and Claudius (41-54) 30

II. The Flavian Emperors (69-96)

Vespasian (69-79) 32

III. The Antonines (96-192)

Name and Rule of the Antonines ; Nerva (96-98) 34

Antoninus Pius (138-161) 36

Marcus AureHus (161-180) 36

CONTENTS XI

Chapter III The Emperors, Their Power and Internal Administration

(193-476)

I. The Barrack Emperors (193-284)

Septimius Severus (193-211) 38

II. The Absolute Monarchy estabHshed by Diocletian.

Diocletian (284-305); the Absolute Monarchy;

Division of the Empire 40

Civil Administration; Increase in the Number of

Officials 41

Diocletian's Character and Abdication 42

III. The Founding of Constantinople; Organization and

Division of the Empire.

Constantine founds Constantinople or New

Rome on the Bosphorus (330) 42

The Emperor's Absolute Power 43

The Division of the Empire into Eastern and

Western (395) 44

BibHography 44

Chapter IV Defense of the Empire; The Migration of Nations

I. Wars on the Rhine and the Danube.

The Frontiers of the Empire . 45

Wars on the Rhine 45

Wars on the Upper Danube 46

Wars on the Lower Danube 46

II. Wars in the East.

Wars against the Parthians 48

War against the Jews (67-70) Siege and Capture of Jerusalem 48

III. Wars in Britain.

Britain and the Julian Emperors 50

Julius Agricola in Britain 50

Xll THE CHRISTIAN ERA

IV. Migration of Nations ; Fall of the Empire.

Emigration into the Empire 51

Character of the#Armed Invasions 52

Causes of the Invasions 53

The Visigoths cross the Danube and later found

an Independent Kingdom in France and Spain 53 Conquests made by other German Tribes in the

Western Empire 54

Attila and the Invasion of the Huns 55

Odoacer and the Fall of the Western Empire (476) 56

Chapter V Roman Life and Civilization during the Early Centuries

I. Classes and Customs of Roman Society.

The Senatorial Order 58

The Equestrian Class 58

The Plebeian Order 59

Slavery 59

The Workday of a Roman 59

II. Education in Rome.

A Roman School-Day 60

Subjects of Study; Social Position of the Teacher 61

The Roman State and Education 62

III. Public Amusements and Social Conditions.

Public Holidays; The Gladiatorial Combats . . 63

Combats of Wild Beasts; Naval Battles .... 64

Political and Family Life; Social Conditions . . 64

Moral Life 65

IV. Roman Law and Art.

Roman Law 65

Roman Art 66

CONTENTS XIU

SECOND PERIOD

THE MIDDLE AGES (476 1517)

Introduction

The Chief Factors in Medieval Civilization 69

Principal Theatre of Events 70

FIRST EPOCH

From the Fall oj the Western Empire to its Restoration under Charlemagne

Chapter VI Italy from 476 to 800

I. The Kingdom of Odoacer; the Ostrogoths.

The Kingdom of Odoacer (476-493) 72

Theodoric the Great (493-526) ; the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy (493-555) 72

II. Byzantine Rule in Italy; The Lombards.

Justinian I the Great (527-565) 74

Byzantine Rule in Italy 74

The Kingdom of the Longobards or Lombards

(568-774). 75

Chapter VII The British Isles to 800

I. England.

The Invasions of the Angles and Saxons ... 77

The Heptarchy or Seven Kingdoms 78

The Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons 78

Ecclesiastical Affairs among the Britons .... 79

II. Ireland.

Ireland and Her Inhabitants 80

The Conversion of Ireland ; St. Patrick (c. 372-493) 81 Bibliography d>Z

XIV T?IE CHRISTIAN ERA

Chapter VIII The Franks to 800

I. The Prankish Kingdom under the Merovingians.

The Franks before Clovis 84

Clovis defeats Syagrius (486) and conquers the

Alemanni ; His Conversion (496) 84

Clovis' Victory over the Visigoths (507) .... 85 Clovis made a Roman Patrician; His Character. 86 The Prankish Empire under Clovis' Successors

The Prankish Empire under the Do-Nothing

Pippin the Short assumes the Royal Title and

puts an End to the Merovingian Dynasty

(751) 88

II. The Prankish Empire under the Early Carolingians

(751-800).

The Reign of Pippin the vShort (751-768) .... 89

The Accession of Charlemagne; His Dominions. . 90

War in Spain 91

Wars against the Saxons (772-804) 91

Wars against the Avars and the Slavs ; the Beginnings of Austria 93

The Restoration of the Empire in the West; Charlemagne is crowned Emperor by Pope Leo

Meaning of this Coronation ; Papacy and Empire 94

Chapter IX Organization and Social Conditions in the Prankish State

I. Organization of the Government.

Character of the Kingship ' . . 96

Royal Power and Residence 96

CONTENTS XV

Administrative Divisions 97

Revenues of the Royal Treasury 98

The Army {qq

The Administration of Justice 100

Penalties ; Laws in Use 101

II. Distribution of Land ; Classes of Persons ; Culture and Education.

Distribution of Land 102

Classes of Persons 103

Culture under the Merovingians 104

Education and Art under Charlemagne . . . .104

Chapter X

I. Mohammed and His Religion.

The Arabs at the Coming of Mohammed . . . .106 Lifeof Mohammed (ab. 570-632) ; theHegira (622) 107

Mohammed's Character 108

Mohammed's Religion 109

II. Mohammedan Conquests and Civilization.

Mohammedan Conquests in Asia and Africa . . 110

Mohammedan Advance into Europe 110

Causes of the Rapid Spread of Islamism . . . .111 Causes of the Political Disruption of the Mohammedan Dominions HI

Arab CiviHzation; The Sciences 112

Arab Letters and Art 112

Industry and Commerce 113

Chapter XI The Church from 476 • to 800 I. The Papacy. The Spiritual Power of the Popes 115

XVI

The Temporal Power of the Popes 116

St. Gregory I, the Great (590-604) 116

II. Monastieism,

The Meaning of Monasticism 117

St. Benedict (490-543) and Monastic Life in the West 118

III. Irish and Anglo-Saxon Monks; the Conversion of

the Germans.

Missionary Labors of Irish Monks 119

St. Boniface, Missionary, Organizer and Reformer

SECOND EPOCH

From the Coronation of Charlemagne to the End oj the Crusades (800-1270)

General Statement 123

Chapter XII The Empire of Charlemagne and Its Disruption

General Character of the Empire of Charlemagne . . .124

Louis the Pious (814-840) 125

The Treaty of Verdun (843) 126

The Absence of Internal Cohesion in the Empire . . . 127

New Invasions 128

The End of the Carolingians 130

Chapter XIII

I. Emperors of the Saxon Dynasty.

The Beginning of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany. 131 Otto I the Great (936-973) ; His Internal Policy. . 132 Otto's External Policy; Expeditions to Italy. . .132

CONTENTS XVll

General Results of the Imperial Expeditions to

Italy 134

The Last Emperors of the vSaxon Dynasty . . . .134

II. The Franconian or vSalian Emperors (1024-1125).

The Investiture Quarrel Accession of the Franconian Dynasty : Some Leading Events in its History 135

Meaning of Investiture 136

Consequences of Lay Investiture 136

The Monks of Cluny; Import of the Investiture

Quarrel 137

The Two Leading Personages in the Investiture Contest : Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry

The Beginning of the Investiture Quarrel. ... 139

The Meeting at Canossa 140

New Excommunication of the King; Deposition

of the Pope ; Appointment of an Antipope ... 142 The Normans in Rome; Gregory's Death at

The Investiture-Contest after Gregory's Death; Its Settlement in the Concordat of Worms (1122) : 143

III. The Suabian or Hohenstaufen Emperors (1138-

1254). Renewed Struggle between the Papacy

and the Empire.

The New Dynasty and the Period during which

it reigned 145

Frederic I Barbarossa (1152-1190) 146

Frederic Barbarossa's First Expedition to Italy . 147 New Expedition to Italy; the Lombard League

(1167); Battle of Legnano (1176); Treaty of

Venice (1177) and of Constance (1183) ... 149

Frederic Barbarossa and Germany 150

Henry VI (1190-1197); The Hohenstaufen and

Lower Italy 151

Frederic II; His Character and Policy 152

XVlll THE CHRISTIAN ERA

Frederic II and the Papacy; Extinction of the

Hohenstaufen Dynast}^ 153

Chapter XIV France under the Capetian Dynasty from 987 to 1270

Hugh Capet (987-996) ; The Condition of France and the

Kingship at his Accession 156

King Louis VII (1137-1180); Eleanor of Aquitaine; Beginning of the Rivalry between the Capetians and the

Plantagenets 157

Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) 158

Coalition against Philip Augustus; The Battle of Bou-

The Crusade against the Albigenses and the Growth of

the Royal Power in the South of France 160

Louis IX, The Saint (1226-1270); His Character ... 161

Louis IX's Foreign Policy 163

His Home Policy 164

Chapter XV England from 800 to 1270

I. England from 800-1154; Anglo-Saxon, Danish and Norman Kings.

Egbert unites under his rule the seven Anglo- Saxon Kingdoms (827) 165

The Danish Invasions; King Alfred the Great (871-901) 165

Alfred the Great and Anglo-Saxon Civilization . 167

England passes under Danish Rule ; Canute the Great 1016-1035 167

Edward the Confessor (1042-1066); Battle of Hastings 1066 ; William the Conqueror and the Beginning of the Norman Dynasty 169

CONTENTS XIX

William the Conqueror's Rule in England ... 170 The Norman Kings after William the Conqueror (1087-1154) 171

II. England from 1154 to 1270.

Accession of Henry II (1154-1189); Thomas Becket, Chancellor of the Kingdom . . . .172

, Archbishop Thomas Becket and Henry II . . . 174

The Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) .... 175 Flight, Return and Martyrdom of Thomas

Becket 175

Results of the Murder 176

Ireland before Henry IFs Reign 177

Partial Conquest of Ireland by Henry II (1171) 178

Henry II's Last Years and Death (1189) ... 179

Richard the Lion-Hearted (1189-1199) .... 180

John Lackland (1199-1216). His Character . . 181 John's Quarrel with Philip II of France . . . .181

John's Quarrel with the Church 181

John's Quarrels with the Barons 182

Contents of the Great Charter 183

John's Last Years 184

Henry III (1216-1272) : His Character and Reign 185

The Provisions of Oxford (1258) 185

The Barons' War; Battles of Lewes (1264) and of

Evesham (1265); End of Henry Ill's Reign . . 186

Chapter XVI The Feudal Lord; Chivalry; the Crusades

I. Feudalism; Chivalry; the Peace and Truce of God.

The Feudal Lord; His Training and Occupation . 188

Chivalry " 189

The Peace and Truce of God 190

II. The Crusades (1095-1270) ; Their Causes, Character

and Number.

Name ; Character and Causes of the Crusades . . 192

XX THE CHRISTIAN ERA

Urban II ; The Council of Clermont (1095). Summons to the First Crusade. Privileges of the

Crusaders 193

Character and NationaUty of the Crusaders . . . 194 Number of the Crusades 194

III. History of the Crusades.

The First Crusade (1096-1099); The Four Expeditions and their Respective Leaders ... 195 The Military Operations of the First Crusade . .195 The Establishment of Military Religious Orders . 197

The Second Crusade (1147-1149) 198

The Third Crusade (1189-1192) 198

The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) 199

The Fifth Crusade (1217-1221) 199

The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) 200

The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) 200

The Eighth Crusade (1268-1270) 201'

IV. General Results of the Crusades.

The Main Object of the Crusades not attained ;

but by them Europe was saved from the Turks. 202 . Material Advantages and Religious Indifference

Resulting from the Crusades 202

Political and Social Changes wrought by the

Crusades 203

Chapter XVII

New Institutions: The Mendicant Orders; The Universities; The Inquisition

I. The Mendicant Orders.

Thirteenth Century Conditions and the Rise of

the Mendicant Orders 205

Establishment of the Franciscans 206

Founding of the Dominicans 207

II. The Universities; Scholasticism; Gothic Art.

The Rise of the Universities; Bologna and Paris 208 Privileges of the Universities 209

CONTENTS XXI

University Degrees and Organization 210

Number and Character of Students ; Student Life 211 Scholasticism; the Scholastics or Schoolmen. . .212

Name and Origin of Gothic Art 213

Characteristics of Gothic Architecture 213

The Influence and Spread of Gothic 214

III. The Inquisition.

Definition and Origin of the Inquisition . . . .215

The Inquisitorial Tribunal 216

Punishment of Heretics 217

Character of the Inquisitors 217

The Use of Torture and the Inquisition . . . .218 Countries in which the Inquisition was established; the Spanish Inquisition; Number of

Victims 219

Conditions accounting for the Existence and Severity of the Inquisition 220

THIRD EPOCH (1270-1517) General Statement 223

Chapter XVIII The Papacy: Residence at Avignon; the Great Schism

I. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) and King Philip IV

the Fair (1285-1314).

Boniface VIII, Philip the Fair and the Taxation

of Ecclesiastical Property 224

New Conflict between Boniface VIII and Philip

the Fair 225

Boniface VIII is taken Prisoner at Anagni; His

II. The Papal Residence at Avignon.

Residence of the Popes at Avignon (1309-1377) 228 Results of the Papal Residence at Avignon . . . 229

III. The Great Schism of the West.

Election of Pope Urban VI (1378) 229

XXll THE CHRISTIAN ERA

The Election of a Second Pope, Clement VII

(1378) 231

Division of the Christian World 232

Attempts to Restore Unity in the Church; the

Council of Pisa (1409) 232

The Council of Constance (1414-1418) 234

Chapter XIX France During and After the Hundred Years' War

I. Name, Causes and Division of the Hundred Years'

Name and Causes of the War 237

Edward III claims the French Throne; the Two

Periods of the War 238

Comparative "Military Status of the Two Countries 239

The Battle of Crecy (1346) 239

The Siege, Capture and New Settlement of

Acquisition of Dauphine by France (1349); Battle of Poitiers (1356) 241

Treaty of Bretigny (1360) ; the Free Companies . 242 King Charles V (1364-1380) ; Most of the English Continental Possessions reconquered by France 243

II. The Hundred Years' War from 1380 to 1453.

Conditions in France from 1380 to 1415 . . . . 244

The Battle of Agincourt (1415) 246

Accession of Charles VII (1422); Conditions in

France 247

Joan of Arc (1412-1431), Her Character and

Mission 248

Deliverance of Orleans, May 8, 1429 250

The Coronation at Rheims (July 17, 1429). ... 250 Joan is captured at Compiegne (May 23, 1430) . .251

CONTENTS XXlll

The Trial of Joan of Arc 252

The Execution of Joan of Arc (May 30, 1431); Her Beatification (April 11, 1919) 253

End of the Hundred Years' War (1453); Its

Results for France 254

HI. France after the Hundred Years' War (1453-1517).

France and Burgundy 255

Dissimilar Character of King Louis XI (1461- 1483) and Duke Charles the Bold (1467-1477) 256

France and Burgundy at War; Failures and Death of Charles the Bold 256

King Charles VIII (1483-1498) and the Beginning of the Italian Expeditions 257

Louis XII (1498-1515) and Italy 258

Chapter XX England from 1270 to 1509 Edward I's Accession; Leading Events of the

Reign 261

The Conquest of Wales (1282) 261

The Model Parliament (1295); the Confirmation of the Charters (1297) 262

The Succession to the Throne of Scotland . . . 263 Insurrection in Scotland ; First Conquest of

the Country (1296) 264

New Rising in Scotland; William Wallace and

Robert Bruce 264

Edward II and Piers Ga vest on 265

The Battle of Bannockburn (1314); Scotland

maintains its independence 266

New Rule of Favorites : the Despensers ; Edward II's Deposition (1327) 267

II. The Reigns of Edward III (1327-1377) and Richard

II (1377-1399).

Edward Ill's Accession 268

XXIV THE CHRISTIAN ERA

The Battle of Neville's Cross (1346) 268

The Black Death and the Statute of Laborers

(1349) 268

Constitutional Development; The Good Parliament (1376) 269

Richard II succeeds to the Throne; John Wiclif

and Religious Unrest 270

The Peasants' Uprising (1381) 271

Richard's Deposition (1399^ 272

III. England from 1399 to 1509; Her Relations with Ireland.

The Houses of Lancaster and York come successively to the Throne 272 The Statute decreeing the Burning of Heretics

(1401) 273

Henry V and Henry VI ; Origin of the Wars of the

Roses 274

Result of the Wars of the Roses ; Reign of Henry

The English in Ireland; the "Pale." 277

The Statute of Kilkenny (1367) 277

Tudor Policy in Ireland; Poynings Act (1494) . . 278 Bibliography 279

Chapter XXI

Spain, Germany, Italy and the East I. Spain.

Spain from 711 to 1002 280

The Reconquest of Spain from 1002 to 1212 . . 280 Gradual Establishment of Spanish National

Unity 282

Isabella Queen of Castile (1474-1504) ; Ferdinand King of Aragon (1479-1516), and the Reconquest of Granada (Jan. 2, 1492) 282

Ferdinand and Isabella's Internal Administration . 283

CONTENTS XXV

II. Germany.

General Characteristics of the Period; the Interregnum (1254-1273) 285

Rudolf of Haspburg (1273-1291) 286

The Succession after Rudolf . 287

Charles IV (1347-1378) and the Golden Bull

(1356) 288

Growth of the Cities; Guilds; City Leagues . . . 289 The Beginnings of Swiss Independence .... 290 The Victories of the Swiss at Morgarten (1315) and Sempach (1386) ; They win complete Independence 291

III. Italy.

General Features of the History of Italy .... 292

The City-state of Florence 293

The Republic of Venice; Its Government. . . . 294

Venice; Foreign Relations 295

Milan, the Visconti and Sforza 295

Naples and Sicily 296

The Papal States 297

IV. The East: Greeks, Slavs and Turks.

The Eastern or Byzantine Empire 299

Divisions and Advance of the Slavs 299

The Ottoman Turks ; Their Origin and Name ;

the Janissaries 300

The Turks cross into Europe (1354) 301

Attacks on Constantinople; Its Fall in 1453 . . 302 Results of the Fall of Constantinople; New

Turkish Successes 303