The work of the teacher

Foreword

The aim of this book is indicated in its title — The Work of the Teacher. Its purpose is to aid directly in preparation for vocational duties and to interpret attitudes and relationships from the professional viewpoint. Duties specifically associated with the teacher's ofl&ce are emphasized rather than those which are shared with other members of the community. Every teacher must conduct class exercises, manage and govern pupils, and make out school reports because of his status as teacher ; in common with the lawyer, merchant, or farmer he is also expected to be a patriotic, intelligent citizen, alert to give his best service wherever it is needed. With the teacher as a teacher this volume is concerned. Unless he stands four-square with the world as an honestly equipped workman in his chosen field, he lacks much of the full stature of citizenship, and can exercise no leadership in the so-called "wider fields" of community Hfe. The teacher's strength as a citizen begins with a firm and efficient grasp of the school situation. It is to emphasize the necessity of meeting fully the technical responsibiHties of the teacher's occupation that this book is written.

Educational principles are not less valid if approached through the medium of concrete exercises connected with everyday school life, such as those appended to each chapter. Young teachers usually search for devices of immediate utility before they grasp educational generalizations which come only with study and experience. It is believed that the specific vi Foreword

suggestions here offered are based upon sound principles of which beginners should become increasingly conscious as they read. The exercises are not based exclusively upon preceding chapters, but usually contain considerable material supplementing the text. They have grown out of practical school experience, have been used for several years in the writer's classes, and are designed for class use, though a large per cent of them can be worked out by the lone teacher in connection with his daily school tasks. Used in this way they should give added meaning to the teacher's work and lead to more effective procedure.

Aside from his colleagues in the broad field of education, former instructors and students whose unmeasured influence has furnished most of the content of this book, the writer is indebted to his wife, Mary Coleman Davis, who has contributed specifically to every page ; to his sister, Helen M. Davis, who read the manuscript critically and constructively ; to his associates in the State Normal School, especially W. J. Osburn, C. A. Hawkins and Miss Beulah Brunner ; to P. P. Callaway, Teacher Training Inspector of Missouri and to Dr. W. C. Bagley whose views may unconsciously appear without quoted recognition because of the author's long continued use of his textbooks in education. Finally, acknowledgment is made to Dr. Bagley, Dr. John Dewey, Miss Lida B. Earhart, Dr. Ernest Carroll Moore, Dr. Arthur C. Perry, Jr., Dr. E. L. Thorndike and to the Houghton Mifflin Company for kindly given permission to quote with credit brief extracts from their publications.

S. E. D.

State Normal School,

Maryville, Missouri.

Chapter I Pages

Wa\s of Regarding Education i-ii

Introduction and analysis, i. Necessity of studying ultimate aims, 2. General aims useful for comparison, 2. Study of aims enlightens practice, 3. Typical ways of regarding education: i. A means of transmitting social inheritance, 5. 2. A means of naturalization, 6. 3. A means of developing wide interests, 6, 4. A means of developing social efficiency, 7. Proximate aims not superseded by general statements of purpose, 9. Exercises, 9-11.

Chapter II

The necessity for studjang pupils, 12. Suggestions for study of pupils : i. Introspection, 13. 2. Children's questions, 14. 3. School activities, 14. 4. Parents and home environment, 15. 5. The child in literature and psychology, 5. Characteristics common to pupils: I. Narrow, personal, specific nature of the child's experience, 18. 2. Experience rather than words lacking, 18. 3. Apperceptive quality of all learning, iq. 4. All children pass through fairly marked stages of development, 20. 5. Diffusion, 21. 6. Pupils' interests and abihties dirigible, 22. Individual differences : i. In type of attention, 15. 2. In suggestibility, 25. 3. In thought and imagery, 27. 4. In age, 28. 5. Diflferences between boys and girls, 29. 6. Diflferences in physical and

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PAGES

sense endowment, 29. 7. Differences as to discipline, 30. 8. Differences in ability to do school work, 30. Exercises, 32-36.

Chapter III

The meaning of the curriculum, 37. The curriculum as a subject of discussion, 37. General content of the curriculum, 38. Use of curriculum determined by biological factors, 38. The curriculum constantly changing, 39. Curriculum changes gradual, 40. Growth in amount of curriculum material results in problems of selection, 46. Specific changes due to elimination and addition, 42. Conservative and progressive attitudes toward new subjects, 44. Opposing theories; cultural contrasted with vocational curriculum, 45. Present use contrasted with preparation ; the problem curriculum, 48, The teacher's relation to criticism of the curriculum, 50. The teacher's relation to the local course of study, 53. Exercises, 54-58.

Chapter IV

The Teacher in Relation to External Elements . 60-101 A. Fixed elements of school environment, 61. Why teachers' ideals should be intelligent concerning school environment, 61. The school site, 61. The school ground, 62. Proper moral environment, 63. Improvement of school site and ground: i. School gardens, 6^. 2. Arbor Day, 64. 3. Other measures of improve ment, 64. Size and shape of classrooms, 65. Schoolroom lighting, 65. Seats and desks, 66. Ventilation of the schoolroom, 69. Maintaining proper temperature, 71. Humidifying schoolroom air, 71. B. Teaching equipment, 72. The blackboard, 72. Maps, 74. The dictionary, 75. Encyclopedias, 77. The school Ubrary, 77. The

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teacher as guide in purchasing teaching equipment, 78. Schoolroom decoration, 79. C. Daily schedule and its administration, 81. Follow program unless modified according to plan, 81. The nature and importance of subjects, 82. The size and character of classes, 83. The question of fatigue, 83. The expedient of alternation, 85. Saving time by combining classes, 86. Provision for helping individual pupQs, 86. Opening or general exercises, 87. D. The teacher's responsibility for hygienic and sanitary measures, 91. Eyesight, 92. Hearing, 93. Adenoid growths, 94. Posture, 94. Communicable diseases and sanitary precautions, 95. Exercises, 97-101.

Chapter V

Governing and Maintaining Morale . . . .102-138 The meaning of government and morale, 102. Purposes of school government, 103. Causes of infractions of discipline or lapse in morale: i. Instinctive tendencies of children, 105. 2. Influence of some homes against work of school, 106. 3. Popular educational discussion misunderstood, 107. 4. Mischief -inspiring school organization, 108. 5. The teacher as the cause of school troubles, no. Essential elements in maintaining morale: I. The school must have organized routine, III. 2. Initiate strongly and with a plan, 112. 3, Persistence essential to use of plans initiated, 114. 4. Hold pupils to the obligation of the school situation, 114. 5. Scholarship an element of control, 115. Incentives: i. Positive versus negative incentives, 116. 2. Group versus individual appeals, 116. 3. Only attainable ends effective as incentives, 117. 4. Best incentives become ideals of lifelong value, 117. 5. Incentives commonly employed: (a) Prizes, 118. (5) Privileges and exemptions, 118. (c) Exhibition of pupils' work, 119. {d) Marks and promotion, 119.

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{e) The incentive of approval or praise, 121. (/) Socialized pride in reputation of room, school, or competing group, 122. Pupil self-government, 123. i. Pupil self-government as a device of school control, 123. 2. Pupil self-government to develop interest in our political institutions, 124. Corrective measures of discipUne:

1. Necessity of coercive measures, 125. 2. General suggestions for use of school penalties: (o) Look for cause of unsatisfactory conduct, 125. (b) The impersonal and objective attitude, 125. (c) Assume innocence of wrongdoing or intention, 126. (J) Penalties inflicted to prevent rather than to compensate for offenses, 126. (e) Punishment severe enough to be unpleasant, 126. (/) Sequential quaUty of punishment, 127. Commonly used penalties and corrective measures: i. Reproof, 128.

2. Withdrawal of privilege, 129. 3. Keeping after school, 129. 4. Sending to the principal, 129. 5. Corporal punishment, 130. 6. Suspension and expulsion, 130. Exercises, 132-138.

Chapter VI

Importance of instructional ability in teachers, 139. Significance of terms — teaching, instruction, lesson, 140. Divisions of lesson — assignment, study, recitation, 140. What the assignment must accomplish: i. Shows clearly what is to be done, 141. 2. Must inspire performance, 143. 3. Direct to difficulties and means of overcoming them, 145. 4. Point to relationships not likely to be discovered by pupils, 147. 5. Place before pupils the proper amount and quality of work, 147. Questions relating to the mode of assigning lessons: i. Place of assignment in class period, 149. 2. Time required to make assignment, 150. 3. Individual assignments, 151. Exercises, 151-153.

139-153

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Chapter VII Faqes

No teaching without learning, 154. The purpose of the recitation, 155. Aims of pupU and teacher, 155. Aims determined by nature of work, 155. Essential conditions for effective recitation: i. The teacher must know the subjects taught, 156. 2. The teacher must know the pupils: (a) Why teachers find it difficult to understand pupils, 157. (6) Expecting too much of pupils, 158. ■ (c) Presupposing adult emotions in children, 158. {d) Importance of immediate set or attitude, 159. (e) Fixed expectation according to grade the result of teaching experience, 160. 3. External conditions necessary for the recitation: {a) Effective seating, 160. {b) Freedom from intrusions, 161. 4. Skill in the technique of teaching: a. Organization of subject matter, (i) Logical and psychological order, 162. (2) Inductive development, (o) Nature of inductive exercises, 163. (Jo) Steps of development, 164. (c) Suggestions for writing a lesson plan, 166. (3) The deductive lesson, 167. b. Use of means appropriate to the type of lesson, 168. (i) Testing, 169. (i) Inadequate means used in testing should not supersede questioning, 169. (ii) Testing reflects upon teacher's work, 169. (2) Instructing, 170. (i) Question and answer instruction, 170. (ii) The topical method, 171. (iii) The telling method, 172. (iv) The written lesson, 173. (3) Drill, (i) Purpose of drUl to secure the economy of habit, 174. (ii) The teacher by drUl reduces selected activities to the plane of habit, 174. (iii) Suggestions for drUl based upon the psychology of habit, 176. (4) Appreciation and enjoyment, 181. (i) Enthusiasm more effective than direct suggestion, 181. (n) Preparation in harmony with aim of appreciation, 182. (iii) Utilizing incidental opportunities to develop appreciation, 182. (iv) Immediate expression of emotion not demanded, 182.

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c. Skill in questioning, (i) School questions a technical instrument, 183. (2) Classifications of questions, 184. (o) Fact and thought questions, 184. {b) Pivotal, developing, and sequential questions, 185. (c) Types of objectionable questions, 187. (3) Suggestions upon questioning: (o) Questions should be clear, {h) definite, (c) not in the language of textbook, 189, {d) distributed according to the needs of the class, 190, {e) asked with an attitude of confidence, 191. (/) The niunber of questions should be reduced, 192. (4) Pupils' answers, 192.

d. Use of illustrative material, 193. (i) Nature and purposes, 193. (2) General suggestions for use of illustration: (a) Use too many rather than not enough, 194. {b) Both pupils and teachers use illustrations, 195. (c) Illustrations should have worth in themselves, 195. {d) Illustrations must be related to material of recitation, 196. (e) Personal illustrations used with care, 197. (3) Common forms of illustrative material, 197. (a) Pictures, drawings, graphs, diagrams, 197. {h) Maps, 203. (c) Illustrative stories, 204.

e. Use of textbooks in the recitation, 205.

/. Suggestions for self-criticism in the technique of the recitation, 207. Exercises, 208-221.

CHAPTER Vin

What study means, 222. Essential conditions for study, 223. I. Motivation, 223. 2. Concentration, 225. 3. Recognition of the nature of the lesson being studied, 226. 4. Memorizing an important element in study, 227. {a) Intelligent recognition of the part played by memory needed, 227. {b) Original retentive power not capable of direct improvement, 228. (c) Memorizing aided by economical organization, 229.

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PAGES

Suggestions for making the study period effective, 231. I. Make study a serious undertaking, 231. 2. Stimulate interest in learning with the least possible expenditure of time, 231. 3. The waste of underlearning, 232. 4. The waste of overlearning, 232. 5. Pupils' notebooks as a form of study, 233. 6. Written work as a form of study, 234. 7. Home study assignments made with care, 235. 8. Supervised study, 237. 9. Utilization of play instincts and incidental possibilities in study, 238. Elimination of typical specific wastes in study, 239. i. Inability of pupils to read, 239. (a) Unfamiliar words, 239. {b) Result of eye defects or wrong grouping, 240. (c) Persistence of famihar meanings, 240. 2. Useless correlations and needless imagery, 240. 3. Studying without recognized plan, 242. Use of textbooks in the study period, 243. i. Study topics rather than pages or chapters, 244. 2. Teacher must know plan and organization and aid pupils to utilize helps, 244. 3. Study questions for guidance of pupils, 245. Diagnosis of pupUs with study difficulties, 247. Exercises, 249-254,

Chapter IX

Measuring the Work of the School . . . ,255-278 Necessity of measuring results, 255. Difficulty of measuring results, 255. Educational results to be measured, 256. I. Ideals, 256. 2. Habits, 257. 3. Knowledge, 258. The school's estimates of its own work, 258. I. The teacher's unrecorded judgment, 259. 2. Marks or grades, 260. (a) How often marks should be recorded,

260. (6) Notation used in marking ; letters and per cents,

261. (c) Giving marks a meaning, 262. 3. Examinations, 266. 4. Standard tests and scales, 268. {a) Represent actual attainment, 268. {b) Are objective and can be widely appHed, 269. (c) Use of scales steadies teacher's

XIV

Table of Contents estimates, 269. {d) Distinction between teaching and testing values of measurement scales, 270. {e) Achievement of rooms or classes more important than high individual records, 271. (/) Teacher's cooperation in developing educational measurements, 272. Promotion as a resultant, 273. Exercises, 273-278.

CHAPTER X Attendance, Records, and Reports

The necessity of regular attendance, 279. Parental responsibility for attendance, 279. PupUs' responsibility for attendance — truancy, 281. Means of stimulating attendance, 281. (a) Vital interest in school work, 281. (ft) Requiring excuses for absence, 282. (c) Compulsory attendance laws, 283. Tardiness as a problem of attendance, 284. Records and reports, 285. {a) Economy and accuracy in keeping records and making reports, 286. (Jb) Reports to school oflScers, 287. (c) Reports to parents, 287. Exercises, 291-292.

279-292

Chapter XI

The purpose of educational statistics, 293. The normal curve of distribution, 295. Application of normal curve of distribution, 296. QuartUes and quintUes; the mode; symmetrical distribution, 297. The median, 298. I. Advantages of median over average, 298. 2. How to compute the median, 300. 3. Discrete and continuous series, 301. 4. Finding median in a continuous series, 303. 5. Abridged processes of finding median, 304. Study of statistical methods and terms worth while for teachers, 305. Exercises, 306-308.

293-308

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Chapter XII

The importance of the teacher, 309. Character and selection of the teaching force: i. Effect of adverse criticism upon the supply of teachers, 310. 2. Need of awakening sentiment for better teachers, 311. 3. Need of more intelligent and effective selection, 312. Qualifications of the teacher: i. Personal, moral, and social qualities and improvement, 313. 2. Educational preparation, (o) Thoroughness, 315. (b) Specific training in every subject taught, 316. (c) Knowledge wider than subject taught, 316. {d) Ready and exact knowledge, 316. 3. Professional training, 317. 4. Teaching experience, 318. 5. Supervisors' estimates of teachers, 319. Proper conservation of teachers' time and energy, 319. I. Frank recognition of the peculiar demands of the profession, 320. 2. Limitation of social service conditioned by demands of the school, 320. 3. System as a conserver of time, 321. The teacher's philosophy of professional relationships, 321. i. Why I teach, 322. 2. Narrowing tendencies of my vocation, 322. 3. Small initial professional margin increased by capitalizing experience, 323. 4. Professional rating most highly prized, 324. 5. Professional code requires etiquette of secrecy, 324. 6. Professional interest in pupils becomes personal, 325. Professional outlook, 325. Exercises, 326-330.

Bibliography

309-330

330-332 333-342

Chapter I Ways Of Regarding Education

Introduction and analysis. Most educational discourses may be analyzed into discussions of the why, the what, or the how of the school and its work. The content of this book relates chiefly to the how, with which teachers are most constantly confronted in their daily activities. Though it often falls to the philosopher to state aims, and to administrative officers to prescribe the what, as laid down in the course of study, it is a poor teacher whose mind forever dwells upon questions of method and management, neither of which achieve full meaning except in relation to the purpose (the why), the subject (the pupil) , and the material (the curriculum) of education. For this reason the first three chapters are devoted to an introductory presentation of these topics. Since acquaintance with them is a condition of success in the first-hand contacts of the schoolroom, their understanding is part of the teacher's work not less than is instruction itself.

Aims of education may be classed as ultimate or general, and as proximate or specific. Most educational purposes discussed as aims by writers upon education are general. Proximate aims include those of which classroom teachers are likely to be conscious: to teach a given lesson, develop a specific ability, or to memorize a bit of literature or a formula.

Necessity of studying ultimate aims. General statements of the aim of education have been made since man began to think of the subject in a well-ordered way. Without aim, the process goes on blindly ; some one must guide. In autocratically governed societies political leaders alone may be concerned with ultimate aims ; in a democratic society all must be interested in the goal toward which preparation for full citizenship tends. Philosophers and leaders may formulate educational aims, but no intelligent teacher can afford to regard discussions of these as too remote or abstract to receive careful study. Rather it should be said that the teacher for whom the great conceptions of educational purpose have no meaning cannot be intelligent. '£!^

The final result of the work of the school has more significance than any method, or device, or unit of subject matter, however important it may seem in the work of the day or term. Beginning teachers, in a most commendable zeal to find "^something that will really tell how to teach," are sometimes impatient of lectures or chapters which deal with the larger phases of education, considering such material " too theoretical." It is worth while for such teachers occasionally to force themselves to a study of some of the great formulations of educational aims ; they may be surprised to find how much meaning is thus added to the activities of daily school Hfe.

General aims useful for comparison. Educational aims stated many years ago, since they afford means for serious clarifying of opinion, are especially worthy of study by way

Ways of Regarding Education 3

of comparison with those accepted by contemporary writers. Only those which are in most general terms have been preserved, and much of what seems to be a difference of ideal soon proves to be merely a difference in mode of expression. Thus the statement of Plato that " a good education is that which gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable " is as true as when uttered. It seems to lack definiteness, though extended amplification could make it as specific as any modern aim. Complete living, harmonious development, or moral character would serve as well as adjustment or social efficiency as far as a logical or ultimate goal is concerned.

All these are general concepts which may be interpreted so as to give an infinite number of concrete meanings applicable to specific situations. Because of the peculiar interpretation given to " moral " character, the Herbartian aim seems one-sided though its advocates claim that it includes all the values of other aims now accepted ; because of popular and short-sighted notions of " efficiency " all use of the word has cccised to have meaning, and " social efficiency," having served its generation, promises soon to be cast aside, excused from active service, and placed among the reserves. Though an educational aim achieves its greatest value when related to specific content, no aim stated in concrete terms can receive wide or long-continued recognition, and however general it may be, popular use soon attaches a one-sided meaning which limits its acceptance. The process of clothing with specific meanings a general statement of the purpose of education is a valuable experience for any teacher.

Study of aims enlightens practice. It is often said that those who teach have little idea of the design of their work ;

that they are so concerned with its mechanism that they seldom look to the direction in which they are tending. In schoolroom language, they are accused of teaching required amounts of reading and arithmetic while regarding themselves as too busy to be concerned with the reason for such teaching or the effects upon the pupil of that which is taught. It may well be questioned whether teachers are less intelligent about the larger phases of their work than are the members of other occupations not better trained, but they are not equipped with a broad enough professional outlook, a fact admitted by the rank and file of teachers in their conscientious striving for better things.

Thoughtful teachers, which includes all except a few who are part of the routine of their work and so without power to take themselves or their teaching seriously, are constantly raising questions as to the why, or the meaning of what they are doing. The true teacher's thoughts are not always confined to a search for the answer to such eminently necessary questions as " How can I bring this class to a knowledge of addition of fractions? "; "How many words should a third grade class read in a minute?"; or "What is the most economical way of memorizing a five stanza poem? " After all such queries are settled, larger and less easily answered questions remain. "Why are schools maintained?" "In addition to being a certain quantity of arithmetic, spelling, or geography, what is the meaning of the course of study? " " Since some children do not seem to care for much of what the school offers, why must I exert myself to make them care, especially for material about which I have never been much concerned and for which I have not thought out a very convincing justification, though I

Ways of Regarding Education 5

have been disposed to regard it as a part of the natural and inevitable? "

Before consideration of the specific elements of the teacher's work, which constitutes the chief content of this book, a few educational aims are noted : they are presented as ways of regarding or " looking at " education in the belief that many teachers will find it less difl&cult to utilize viewpoints than aims. The teacher who is conscious of some of these larger views has a background and an aim ; he also has standards for weighing each method, device, disciplinary measure, or unit of subject matter and for testing educational fads so as to see in true perspective the insignificant details which noisy advocates would magnify out of all proportion to their importance. He has the freedom which comes with acting from principle rather than from rule,

I . Education regarded as a means of transmitting social inheritance. " Education as a social institution may be defined as the method by which a particular generation endeavors to incorporate the vital elements of its civilization or culture into the life of the generation that succeeds it." ^ It is useful to think of the school as the specialized agency for transmitting the inheritance of civilization. The idea of inheriting property or physical traits is already familiar. No less truly are skills, interests, ideals, and habits handed down from generation to generation, especially through home and school.

The individual who has not learned to read, to care for good literature or music, or to be honest and industrious is a pauper in these fields because he has not received his social heritage. To add, write, spell, sing, or draw pictures ; to work hard and perseveringly, to be polite, fair-minded, honest, or neat ;

1 Macvannell, 30.

to like a good story or book or a fine landscape ; to have a sense of humor or the ability to show sympathy — these, with thousands of more specific accomplishments necessary for participation in social life, are not inborn and must be regarded as parts of the cultural possessions of society which it is expected each generation will receive largely through the school. Viewed from this standpoint, how important the teacher's work becomes ! And how vital it is that the conductor of a school shall be one who has acquired a good measure of this inheritance !

2. Education regarded as a means of naturalization. A second useful way of regarding our work is to think of it as a means of naturalization. This somewhat poetic view is of course founded upon a comparison between the child and the immigrant who arrives in our country with so much to learn. A baby is in more than a fanciful sense a stranger ; he must acquire language, habits, morals, ideals, skills, attitudes, social standards, responsibility. To one who will make the effort, a daily estimate of the increasing list of situations in which a normally developing child progressively finds himself at home is well worth while. The extent of one's naturalization, as the term is used here, is a good measure of the breadth of his culture or the degree of his education. As the teacher of a primary class looks upon her charges, how small and helpless they seem ! What a group of little strangers they are and how much they have to learn before they can make their own way and feel at home in the world ! The teacher's great question is " How have I helped these little foreigners toward fuller naturalization? "

3. Education a means of developing wide interests. A third useful way of regarding our work is to think of it as a means

Ways of Regarding Education 7

of increasing the interests of pupils. When one says, " I am interested " it is understood that he esteems the object of his interest worth while. A person who shows weak interests is considered passive, apathetic, or stolid ; if he has few interests but these so strong that they have dwarfed all others he is often properly rated as narrow-minded, an extremist, a bigot, or a fanatic. It is the business of the school to develop a wide range of permanent desirable interests, to increase the number of satisfying things which the child is building into his world. The extent of one's interests may be tested by what he reads, plays, works at, or enjoys. The narrow outlook of children from many homes presents an appalling problem ; aside from animal gratifications it seems that they do not greatly care for anything worth while. Much of what society offers as best remains the property of a few because of failure to develop wider interests among those of school age ; it has even been said that new interests are seldom if ever aroused or made an integral part of character in persons more than twenty-five years of age.

Most of our unused wealth is of the kind whose use would cost little or nothing, while contributing greatly to that richness of experience which best measures the value of life. Culture itself has been defined as " training for the impersonal pleasures, for the unselfish satisfactions which involve no necessary deprivation for any other man." ^ The interest in cloud shapes, sunsets, wild flowers, stars, amateur gardening, making collections, stories, current events, playing games are typical of those which nearly all children should be led to develop.

4. Education a means of developing social efficiency. A fourth and now very widely accepted statement of the pur-

* Thomdike : Education, 47.

pose of education is that it aims at the development of the socially efficient individual. The usual interpretation of this aim stresses doing, — attainment for social as opposed to individual ends. Such anti-social groups as the criminal or immoral ; tramps, idlers rich and poor, and other social parasites ; persons who lose time through preventable illness ; and, in less degree, those who do unskillfuUy, with inevitable accompanying waste, what superior training might have accomplished with greater economy — all these are examples of failure to realize social efficiency.

The virile grip of this conception of education makes it peculiarly applicable to social situations involving tangible elements or those readily translated into deeds, and it is easy to think of an education which shall result in efficient handwriting, spelling, manual or athletic activities, or even in efficient honesty, justice, or equanimity. The force of the word " efficient " which so generally gives it a meaning of " doing the work " or " getting results " renders it difficult sometimes to apply this aim to more subjective values whose final social worth may be the greatest.

Thus education for efficient enjoyment of literature, sunsets, leisure, vacations, or for the production of efficient art, anthems, or good manners seems to involve unusual use of the word. A school might pride itself upon an efficient heating plant but hardly upon an efficient landscape for the enjoyment of its pupils. Superficial understanding of this aim is likely to give undue weight to vocational as opposed to cultural studies. Bread-winning values are easily appraised ; the effect of literature, history, and linguistic subjects upon which common traditions and ideals insuring national solidarity depend, often defies analysis, but the stress of a world war should