The psychology of childhood

Front matter

Glass Book

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD

Prefatory Note

The first rough draft of part of this book was prepared by- Professor Norsworthy in 19 13, when it was suddenly put aside on account of illness and never thereafter touched. Some of it was later incorporated into the text "How to Teach," by Strayer and Norsworthy. When in 1916 it was urged that the preparation be resumed, since there seemed to be a felt need for a book of this type for use in normal schools, Miss Norsworthy's own physical condition precluded the attempt. Less than a fortnight before her death, when she was unable to talk over any details, she requested me to complete the work as arranged for in the plan of chapter titles. The task has involved a revision, partial rewriting, and the addition of several chapters. This may explain discrepancies in point of view and in style for which I can but apologize. Miss Norsworthy's many friends, to whom this book is affectionately dedicated, will, I am sure, understand that any adverse criticisms should be directed towards the reviser.

I am indebted for valuable help to Professor E. L. Thorndike, not only in retaining the many quotations from his works, and in the organization of the early part of the book, but also for much friendly criticism. My thanks are due also to Professors Strayer and Monroe, to Dr. Hollingworth for suggestions in chapter XVI, and to my cousin for assistance in proof reading.

Mary Theodora Whitley.

Introduction

This book is written with a view to its use in normal schools. A course in general psychology is presupposed, since no space is devoted to the explanation of common psychological terms, though a glossary is added for easy reference. The authors are of opinion that the study of a special branch, such as child psychology, should follow rather than precede, or even accompany, a study of the more general science.

It is intended for a textbook, not for reference reading. To this end special features have been employed, e.g. marginal questions as well as topical headings, only limited references, sets of questions with each chapter. These last are of two distinct kinds, "exercises" and "questions for discussion." The former consist of problems, queries to be answered in writing, directions for observations, field-work ; the latter are suggested for oral use in the classroom. Either or both kinds are given for each chapter. They have been tested by use, and it is believed that greater value will be secured if they are utilized in the manner indicated. The references following each chapter are in no way supposed to be adequate indexes of source material ; but they suggest what may reasonably be required of a group of students working with a good-sized library at command.

Constant emphasis has been thrown on the physiological basis of the tendencies discussed, and Thorndike's classification of instincts, on the basis of the responses made, is adhered to throughout. Though in some instances suggestions for teaching are made, yet the greatest space is devoted to a descriptive study of children as differentiated from adults.

viii Introduction

For immature students it may be found easier to begin with chapter II, postponing or omitting chapter I, also the last part of chapter XVII which deals wholly with statistics.

Naomi Norsworthy, Mary Theodora Whitley.

Contents

PAGE

PREFATORY NOTE v

INTRODUCTION vii

CHAPTER I THE SOURCE OF ORIGINAL NATURE i

THE CONTRIBUTION OF NEAR ANCESTRY i

Resemblance in families i

Specialised inheritance ....... 3

Variation 5

Non-transmission of acquired traits ..... 6

Nature versus nurture 7

---.. Gallon's work 8

Studies of twins ......... 9

Study of royalty 10

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SEX 11

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RACE 13

Woodworth's tests 14

Recent investigations 15

Improvement of the race as a whole 17

CONCLUSION 18

Chapter II Dependence On Physiological Structure . 21

TYPES OF ORIGINAL RESPONSES 22

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORIGINAL RESPONSES ... 23

They are mechanical 23

They are constant 24

They are delayed 26

They are transitory 27

They are crude 29

METHODS OF MODIFYING ORIGINAL NATURE . . 29

Disuse or stimulation ........ 30

Unpleasant or pleasant results 31

Substitution and sublimation 31

ix x Contents

PAGE

REASONS FOR DELAYEDNESS AND TRANSITORINESS OF

INSTINCTS 32

Recapitulation theory 32

Evidence stated and criticized 33

EMBRYOLOGY 34

VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES 35

VESTIGIAL PSYCHOSES 36

Derived, culture epoch theory 37

Utility theory 38

QUESTIONS 4C

CHAPTER in

TENDENCIES RESULTING IN ACTION. NON-SOCLAL IN- STINCTS 41

GENERAL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 42

Bodily movements 42

Theory — fundamental to accessory 43

Provision for this instinct 46

Vocalization .......... 46

Manipulation 48

FOOD-GETTING AND HUNTING 49

TEASING 51

OWNERSHIP AND COLLECTING 52

Training needed ......... 53

Changes with age ......... 53

FIGHTING 54

Training needed 56

Chapter IV Motherly Behavior 59

Kindliness 60

GREGARIOUSNESS 63

Value for development ........ 63

Importance in child life 64

DESIRE FOR APPROVAL AND DISPLAY .... 66

Differences with maturity ........ 66

RIVALRY 68

Dynamic value .......... 69

Danger of over-development 69

Contents xi

PAGE

IMITATION AS AN INSTINCT . 70

It is specialized 71

Most imitation is due to habit . . . . . 72

Value of imitation 73

SEX INSTINCT : . 74

Stages and fields of development 74

Normal and abnormal development 75

Sex education 77

Training 77

Instruction 78

Teacher's duty 79

QUESTIONS 8l

Chapter V Physiological Basis For Satisfyingness ... 82

Various theories . . -83

UTILIZATION OF AFFECTIVE STATES IN EDUCATION . 85

.ESTHETIC EMOTIONS 87

Joy in creation not identical with aesthetic pleasure . . 88

Training aesthetic pleasure 89

PRIMITIVE EMOTIONS 89

"General methods of control 91

Study of fear 93

Stimuli and responses 93

Delayed and transitory forms 94

Control of fear 94

Chapter VI

TENDENCIES RESULTING IN MENTAL STATES. ATTENTION 97

ORIGINAL ROOTS OF ATTENTION 97

Significance of attentiveness 98

Arousal of instinctive attention ....... 98

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADULTS' AND CHILDREN'S

In span or range ......... 99

Difference in complexity of object 100

Difference in mechanical habits present . . . .101

In intensity 102

Contents

PAGE

Change with maturity 103

Change with practice . . . . . . . .104

In breadth of field 104

In type of attention 105

In ability to give voluntary attention 106

Value of forced attention ....... 107

Effort and interest 108

Incentives and attention ....... 109

TRAINING OF ATTENTION no

QUESTIONS Ill

CHAPTER VTI

ORIGINAL ROOTS OF PERCEPTION 112

DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION 112

By differences in simultaneous sensations . . . .113

By improved attentiveness . . . . . . .114

Resulting differences between adults and children . . . 115

In richness, defi idleness, detail 115

In amount of stimulus needed . . . . . .116

In influence of " mind's set" 116

CAUSE OF ILLUSIONS II 7

Specific development 11S

Brightness, color, space 11S

Weight 119

Sound, rhythm 119

SENSE ORGANS 120

Eye defects 121

Myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism . . . . . .121

Strabismus 121

Color blindness . . . . . . . . .121

Ear defects 122

TRAINING IN PERCEPTION 123

Necessity of training ......... 123

Types of observation 124

Inquiring or purposeful 124

Purposive 124

Individual differences in perception 125

Improvement in observation ....... 12b

Teaching suggestions u;

QUESTIONS I30

Contents xiii

Chapter VIII Page

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY 131

IMMEDIATE MEMORY AND RETENTION . . . .131

Difference between children and adults 132

Suggestions for teaching 133

MEMORY FOR VARIED MATERIAL 134

Ages of development 134

Teaching suggestions 136

RELATION OF RATE OF LEARNING TO RETENTION . 137

MEMORIZING 138

Distributed or continuous method 138

Repetition, concentration or recall 140

Whole or part method 142

Variation in sense appeal 143

OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING MEMORY . . .144

PRESENT STATUS OF MEMORY WORK IN SCHOOL . 145

Chapter IX Original Basis Of Imagination 149

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS . . 150

In kind of images used 150

Children visualize more 150

Children use concrete imagery more 151

TRAINING IN VERBAL IMAGERY 152

Characteristics of different periods 154

VALUE OF PRODUCTIVE IMAGERY 1 56

POSSIBLE DANGERS IN THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD . -157

In vividness of images 159

Resulting confusions ........ 159

NIGHT FEARS 162

IMAGINARY COMPANIONS 1 63

In amount of imagery 164

DRAMATIZATION 164

SYMBOLISM 166

QUESTIONS : l6S

Chapter X Original Basis Of Power To Think . . . .169

It develops early 170 xiv Contents

PAGE

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULTS AND CHILDREN . . 171

Children think less than adults do 171

Most needed reactions are mechanical . . . . .172

Environment inhibits it 172

Discomfort results . . . . . . . 173

Children's thinking is inaccurate 176

Their fads are limited 176

Their premises are inaccurate 176

Their attention is less concentrated 177

They do not systematize 178

They associate by wholes 179

They lack a critical attitude 179

Children's problems are different 181

Triviality is a relative term . . . . . .181

No abrupt change at adolescence 182

NEED OF TRAINING IN THINKING 183

QUESTIONS lS6

Chapter XI

GENERAL TENDENCIES OF ALL THE TENDENCIES. HABIT

AND LEARNING 187

PLASTICITY THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HABIT- FORMING 187

Variation in plasticity 188

Age differences in plasticity iSf.

Periods of greater plasticity 189

Suggestions for training 189

LAWS OF HABIT FORMING 191

Exercise and effect 191

Precepts derived therefrom 192

The full nerve circuit must be used 192

Take economic means to desired result . . . .192

Contrive pleasant results after right response . . . 193

Law of primacy 194

Other principles 196

IMPROVEMENT .196

Laboratory and school compared 197

Consciousness of definite goal 197

Speedy working of law of effect 19S

Desire to improve 198

Interest in work 199

Contents xv

PAGE

The practice curve 200

Sharp slant at first 200

Plateaus 200

Muscular skill 201

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS 203

Chapter XII Play 206

THEORIES OF PLAY 206

Excess energy 206

Preparation for life 207

Atavistic theory . . . . . . . . . 207

Motive of rivalry 208

Biological theory ......... 209

MEANING OF TERM "PLAY" 210

Not one instinct but a field for many 211

Amusement, games, sports . . . . . . .211

Play, work, and drudgery 212

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PLAY SPIRIT 215

AGE DIFFERENCES IN PLAY INTERESTS . . . .216

DIRECTED PLAY 219

Provision of space ......... 219

Supervision, wise and unwise . 220

Chapter XIII

SEQUENT TENDENCIES. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS DE- VELOPMENT 224

DEFINITION OF MORAL TENDENCY 224

Intelligence a factor . . . . . . . . .224

Personal choice 224

Individual responsibility . . . . . . . .225

Habituated action 226

Social relationship 227

Historic changes 228

Racial differences 228

Size of group : 228

Distinction from immorality 229

Dependence on instinct ........ 229

Contents

PAGE

RELIGIOUS TENDENCY 230

Meaning of term "religion" ....... 230

Acts involved 231

Emotions 232

Intellectual factors 232

Essentials 232

Experience 232

Realization of opposing forces 233

Habits, knowledge, and thinking 233

Religion includes morality 234

Connection with instincts 234

Need of training 235

TRAINING IN MORALS AND RELIGION . . .236

Principles concerned 236

Laws involved are not new 237

Apperception ......... 238

Suggestion 240

Habit formation 240

effect 240

EXERCISE 241

Full neurone circuit to be used . . . . . .242

Individual differences 243

Transfer of training ........ 243

Training and instruction at different ages .... 244

Stages not sharply defined 244

Early years 245

NON-MORAL 245

Middle stage 247

CHARACTERISTICS 247

TRAINING 248

INSTRUCTION 249

Transition period 251

Adolescent period 252

CHARACTERISTICS 252

CHAPTER XW

GOOD HEALTH AS A SCHOOL RESPONSIBILITY . 25S

Interdependence of mind and body 259

Happiness depends on it 260

Contents xvii

PAGE

Economic conditions 260

Organization, and demands of school life . . . .261 PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHILDREN AND

ADULTS 262

FACTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 263

Factors determining : heredity and environment . . 263

Growth in height and weight 265

Growth and development of various parts .... 267

Physiological and chronological age 268

CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

HEALTH 270

Inspection, hygiene, special studies 270

Recognition of defects 271

Teeth 271

Speech 272

Adenoids, tonsils . . . • . . . . -273

Tuberculosis 275

Contagious diseases 276 y

Chapter XV Cross-section Of Child Life At Five And At

ELEVEN 280

CHILD LIFE AT FIVE .280

Socially 281

Standards to he set 283

Play interests 284

Instincts prominent 286

Mental characteristics 287

Mental tests 289

CHILD LIFE AT ELEVEN 290

Physically 290

Socially 292

Moral development 294

Moral standards 295

Play interests 297

Instincts prominent 298

Mental characteristics 303

Mental tests . . . 305

School standards in various countries 305

EXERCISE 308

Contents

Chapter XVI Page

BOUNDARIES OF ORDINARY AND EXCEPTIONAL . . 310

EXCEPTIONAL MORALITY 311

Causes 313

EXCEPTIONAL PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 315

Epilepsy 315

Kinds and cause 315

Diagnosis and treatment 315

Hysteria 316

Characteristics . . . . . . . . .316

Diagnosis and treatment 316

Chorea 317

Symptoms and treatment 317

Tics 317

Neurasthenia 318

Characteristics and cause 318

Diagnosis 318

Dementia pracox 3 Z 9

EXCEPTIONAL MENTALITY 320

Subnormal mentality 320

Degrees classified 3 2 °

Physical characteristics 322

Mental characteristics 3 22

Cause 323

Diagnosis 3 2 4

WHO SHOULD MAKE IT 3 2 4

HOW IT IS MADE 3 2 5

Retarded children 3 2 7

Supernormal mentality 3 2 &

Characteristics • • 3 2 8

Causes 3 2 9

Diagnosis 3 2 9

PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN . . . .331

Special institutions 33 l

Methods of grading 332

EXERCISES Hi

Contents xix

Chapter XVII Page

METHODS USED IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY . . . .335 CONTENT DERIVED FROM OTHER KINDS OF PSY- CHOLOGY 335

METHODS COMMON TO OTHER KINDS OF PSYCHOLOGY 336

Introspection 336

Reminiscence 337

Questionnaire ......... 337

Observation 338

Free activity or directed response 338

Extensive or intensive 339

Experiment 340

Qualitative or quantitative 340

Tests and scales 341

Purpose of scales 341

Training in administering tests 342

STATISTICAL METHODS 346

Noting the number 347

Noting the range 347

Meaning of units used 34g

Central tendency 350

Mode 3 S o

Median

INTERPOLATED MEDIAN

Average 353

Comparison of three kinds 354

Deviations from the central tendency 355

Average deviation 356

Median deviation

Comparison of groups 358

Measurement of resemblance, correlation .... 359 exercises pp. 3 49) 3 SO - I -3_4_ 7 _8_g > 3 6!