Supervised study in American history

Front matter

QDDDEbll3TT

EDITED BY

ALFRED L. HALL-QUEST

Preface

There Is probably no subject in the curriculum which offers greater possibilities for the inauguration of supervised study than American History. It is generally conceded, however, that this subject frequently has been as little understood or enjoyed, by the average boy or girl, as any subject studied in our elementary or secondary schools. Several years ago, this fact became very apparent to me in my own teaching. Although the pupils in my History classes appeared to be interested, I felt the lack of real enthusiasm and pleasure which comes from a genuine interest in a subject.

After studying the situation for some time, I became thoroughly convinced that this lack of real interest was not so much the fault of the subject matter, as the manner in which this subject matter was presented. This conviction resulted in a careful investigation of all conditions which seemed to have a bearing upon the matter. It soon became evident that my pupils had no ability to do independent studying. Their only idea of study was to memorize the facts contained in the text. It never seemed to occur to them to question statements or investigate points which were not clear.

Since this class was composed of boys and girls of average intelligence, it seemed certain that their lack of enthusiasm was the result of their failure to understand what they studied.

viii Preface

This investigation proved to me the necessity of endeavoring to teach these children how to study. I therefore determined to try an experiment. All notebooks and outlines, upon which much time and effort had been spent, were packed away, and we began to study together. We made many mistakes, but in spite of this fact the pupils found a new inspiration and enjoyment in studying history. I wish to pay a special tribute to the first Eight A class of boys and girls who did so much to encourage me to make a greater effort for their sakes. Our first semester spent in attempting to learn how to study was one of the happiest experiences during many years of teaching.

Much thought and study have been given to this matter in the years intervening since the first crude attempt. It is, therefore, as a result of these experiences that I have been persuaded to attempt this manual. The lessons outlined and the suggestions offered have been put in as brief and definite a form as possible, in the hope of giving teachers sufficient concrete illustrations to enable them to make practical application of these ideas to the needs and conditions existing in their own particular classrooms.

An earnest plea is herein made to superintendents of schools and directors of courses of study, for the provision of a minimum requirement in History as well as in all other subjects. It will then be more possible for teachers to devote sufficient time to instruction in how to study the subject, without the fear of being unable to complete the course. "Training for self -direction " may then become our slogan. This training may be accomplished by providing situations which demand the recognition and solution of problems. Purposive thinking is essential to the successful solution of any problem.

Preface ix

Even young children are compelled to face situations which demand purposive thinking. Such thinking involves the recognition of a problem, the collection and organization of data, the suspension of judgment, making definite decisions and the exercise of initiative. Each of these steps thus becomes an important factor for consideration in teaching children how to study. Mental development and actual power are found to result wherever such methods of instruction are employed. Supervised study aims to secure development of this character.

I wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to Professor Alfred L. Hall-Quest, of the University of Cincinnati. His enthusiasm and generous support during the inauguration of supervised study in the Washington Junior High School of Rochester, N. Y., have been a source of continual inspiration. As editor of this series he has read this manual in manuscript form, and his constant encouragement and valuable suggestions have resulted in its completion.

Special thanks are due to Dr. Frank M. McMurry, of Teachers College, Columbia University, and to Dr. Lida B. Earhart, for the first inspiration to attempt definite instruction in "how to study" with my classes. To Professor Henry Johnson, also of Teachers College, Columbia University, I am indebted for many ideas concerning the subject of history, all of which have been invaluable in my teaching experience.

In addition, grateful appreciation is hereby rendered to Mr. Herbert S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools ; Mr. Clinton E. Kellogg, Principal of the Concord Grammar School ; and Mr. James M. Glass, Principal of the Washington Junior High School, Rochester, New York, all of whom have gener-

X Preface

ously given counsel and direction during the years I have spent in attempting to be of greater service to the boys and girls who have been intrusted to my care.

Mabel E. Simpson.

Rochester, New York, February 4, 191 8.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE — GENERAL PRINCIPLES

PAGE

Preface » . vii

PART TWO — ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS FIRST SECTION. SEVEN B GRADE Lesson I — The Inspirational Preview 33

Lesson II — The Dawn of History and Early Leaders of Civilization. Unit of Instruction I, An Inductive and How to Study Lesson 37

Lesson III — The Dawn of History and Early Leaders of Civilization {Continued). An Inductive and How to Study Lesson 45

Lesson IV — The Dawn of History and Early Leaders of Civilization {Continued). An How to Study Lesson . . -52

Lesson V — The Dawn of History and Early Leaders of Civilization {Continued). A Deductive Lesson .... 58

Lesson VI — The Dawn of History and Early Leaders of Civilization (Conc/wJerf). A Red Letter Day Lesson ... 63

Lesson VII — Events Leading to the Discovery of America.

Unit of Instruction II. An Expository Lesson ... 67 xii Table of Contents

PAGE

Lesson VIII — Events Leading to the Discovery of America

(Continued). A Deductive Lesson 71

Lesson IX — The Discovery and Exploration of America. Unit

of Instruction III. i. The Discovery. A Socialized Lesson 76

Lesson X — The Discovery and Exploration of America. 2. European Nations Interested in Exploration and Colonization. An How to Study Lesson 82

Lesson XI — The Discovery and Exploration of America. 2. European Nations Interested in Exploration and Colonization (Continued). An How to Study and Deductive Lesson 86

SECOND SECTION. SEVEN A GRADE

Chapter Five — The Evaluation of the Course of Study for a Seven A Grade 95

Lesson XII — The Colonization of America. Unit of Instruction IV. I. The Struggle for English Liberty. An Inductive Lesson 98

Lesson XIII — The Colonization of America — The Struggle for

English Liberty {Continued). An Expository Lesson . . 102

Lesson XIV — The Colonization of America. 2. The English

Colonies in America. An Habituation Lesson . . . 108

Lesson XV — The Colonization of America. 2. The English Colonies in America (Continued). An Appreciation and Habituation Lesson . . . . . . . -113

Lesson XVI — The Colonization of America. 4. Steps toward Self-Government in the Colonies. A Review and Deductive Lesson . . . . . . . . . . .121

Chapter Six — The Intercolonial Wars. Unit of Instruction V. 126

Lesson XVII — The Revolution of the English Colonists in America. Unit of Instruction VI. An Inductive and How to Study Lesson 128

Lesson XVIII — The Revolution of the English Colonists in

America (Continued). A Socialized Recitation . , • i3S

Table of Contents xiii

THIRD SECTION. EIGHT B GRADE

PAGE

Chapter Seven — Evaluation of the Course of Study for an Eight B Grade 145

Lesson XIX — The Critical Period. Unit of Instruction VII. The Making of the Constitution. An Inductive and Socialized Lesson 146

Lesson XX — The Critical Period. The Making of the Constitution {Continued). A Deductive Lesson . . , .152

Lesson XXI — The Critical Period. The Making of the Constitution {Concluded). A Review Lesson . . . . .157

Chapter Eight — Current Events 164

Lesson XXII — America's Struggle for Commercial Independence. Unit of Instruction VIII. Events Leading to the War of 181 2. An Appreciation Lesson 172

Lesson XXIII — The Slavery Question. Unit of Instruction IX.

An How to Study Lesson 177

Lesson XXIV — The Slavery Question {Continued). An

Chapter Nine — The Civil War. Unit of Instruction X. General Statement ........ 189

Lesson XXV — The Civil War {Continued). A Socialized and

Inductive Lesson 190

Chapter Ten — A Red Letter Day Program .... 196

FOURTH SECTION. EIGHT A GRADE

Chapter Eleven — General Statement concerning the Subject Matter to Be Studied in the Eight A Grade .... 201

Lesson XXVI — The Inspirational Preview .... 204

Lesson XXVII — The Period of Reconstruction. Unit of Instruction XL An How to Study Lesson . , . .211

Lesson XXVIII — The Period of Reconstruction {Continued).

An Inductive Lesson . . . . . . . .217 xiv Table of Contents ^

PAGE

Lesson XXIX — The Influence of Transportation and Methods

of Communication upon the Development of the Nation.

Unit of Instruction XII. An How to Study Lesson . .223 / Lesson XXX — The Influence of Transportation and Methods of ^

Communication {Continued). An Inductive-Deductive Lesson 228 Lesson XXXI — Territorial Expansion of the United States.

Unit of Instruction XIII. An Expository Lesson . . 236

Lesson XXXII — Important National Issues. The Tariff. Unit 241

of Instruction XIV. An Habituation Lesson . . . 241

Lesson XXXIII — An Examination Lesson .... 249

Bibliographies 269

Index 273

CHAPTER ONE Introduction by the Editor

EDUCATION VIEWED FROM THE PUPIL'S DESK

The pertinent question of the day in the field of education is — Should education fit the child or should the child fit education? Having evolved an increasingly complex organization should the educator require all school children to become cogs in this machinery, mere numbers or names, halting or progressing or dropping out according to their educational fitness ? When the questions are stated so bluntly it is comparatively easy to reply in an emphatic, " No, of course not." The child is worth more than machinery. Educational plans must be adapted to the child. His individuality must have right of way throughout the school period, for only by this method can he reach the finest ability to adjust himself to the shifting demands of his maturity and his social duties. If placed over against each other in bold contrast there doubtless is no one who would assign superior value to a system over that of a child.

The contrast, however, cannot be stated so sharply and still do justice to the objects compared. Organization or system is indispensable in dealing with groups. Nearly twenty million children cannot be educated without careful plarming, a planning, moreover, that must ignore some of the individual differences inevitable in any group. All of us must sacrifice something for the larger social unit of which we are a necessary part, and to learn this lesson of social obligation early in life will make its wider application later in the child's development somewhat less difficult.

On the other hand, it needs to be emphasized that what is being organized and rearranged is a mode of educational procedure by which each child — the active citizen of the future — may reach a level of ability and a state of cultural outlook most promising for his fellowmen. /The educational output must be, as nearly as possible, the full-rounded exploration of the child's individuahty, every important agency of service in his being having been exercised and tested under conscientious and intelligent direction. The school is, or ought to be, the training camp of the selectives in the army of champions of social progress. It matters not what division they may enter on the completion of their training. In the school they are to be given the preliminary training that will make possible the discovery of their peculiar fitness for a particular kind of service, and also considerable development of skill in carrying out the orders that will be given them in the larger service.

It of course is true that the pupil does not leave school a finished product, but at the close of his formal school career it is right to expect that he shall have achieved certain definite ends which may immediately be converted into means for the establishing of a reasonably successful type of service. The organization of the school must make this individual attainment possible for every pupil who has demonstrated, under careful supervision, that he is capable of being educated. The child is not a mere name or a mere number on the class-

Education Viewed from the PupiVs Desk 3

roll. He is a young Ufe, presumably valuable to society or at least potentially so. The tax-payer supports the public school because he desires the new recruit in the various armies of national life to be well trained for his work. Uniformity of training is essential, but the fitting of each individual for his place in society is no less important. One without the other is incomplete. Organization and individual development according to the individuahty of each pupil should go hand in hand. The question is not one of superiority, but of equality.

Theoretically the foregoing conception of public school policy appears sound. But theories must be tested. Education is a practical affair. Its idealism must be made incarnate in the flesh and blood of the most effective form of school administration. Now, how can needful organization be maintained and at the same time opportunity be given each pupil to reach his level of self-direction ? It is common knowledge that there already exists a variety of schemes providing for individual differences. The elective system, for example, is one of these schemes that tend to individualize educational procedure. Various types of promotional plans, such as the Pueblo and the Oregon, seek to give the individual right of way. Schools for supernormal and for subnormal children are not uncommon. Rapid and slow sections in larger schools are adapted to the individual's rate of learning. In college and university the capable student may graduate in less than four years. Curriculum differentiations provide for individual differences. There is general recognition of the justice of allowing each learner to progress at his natural rate of learning.

Among the types of organization that aim to emphasize education for the individual is the general plan known as Supervised Study. While the term itself may be new, the meaning is not altogether novel, for the conscientious teacher no doubt has always made room for the needful direction of the individual's effort. There probably are few, if indeed any, teachers who would refuse to aid any pupil who sought help honestly and discreetly. Direction of study takes place now and then in every school ; but supervised study means much more than the occasional direction offered to pupils who request assistance.! Supervised study is a daily undertaking. Every period of the day is organized for the purpose of directing the details of the learning process. Studying is regarded as the working on a job under the direction of the superintendent of the shop. Because educational material is costly, because time and life are invaluable, the director of study is engaged in the conservation of mental effort. The hours wasted in ignorant, haphazard, discouraging, and all too often unsuccessful home study are spent in class study periods where a wise teacher directs the learning of a new assignment and reduces to an inevitable minimum the difficulties encountered in mastering a topic or a problem.

Under the organization of supervised study the pupil is shown how to study, and he is supervised while he applies the principles of correct studying. Precept and supervision go hand in hand, as they always should do, especially in the undertaking of new work. This of course does not mean helping the pupil to the detriment of his initiative. School supervision of reading or of writing does not destroy the initiative of the teachers whose work is supervised. Criticism is not a crutch. It is absolutely essential to success; and the pupil is entitled to this constructive criticism while he is working, for only in this way can time be saved, effort be conserved, and progress accelerated.

Education Viewed from the Pupil's Desk 5

When supervised study is accepted as the prevailing method of classroom procedure the general aim of every period will be to reduce the time spent in hearing lessons and to devote most of the period to the direction of pupils while preparing a new lesson. This direction of study includes the cooperative assignment during which portion of the period the teacher illustrates how the new lesson should be studied. The actual studying of the lesson really begins during the assignment, but the intensive or silent study follows immediately upon the cooperative treatment of the new work. Variations of this general plan will be made by every ingenious teacher who seeks not to adopt but to adapt it to the needs and conditions of each class.

In this volume Miss Simpson describes in minute detail one of the variations in supervised study as devised largely by herself and employed for a considerable time. The arrangement of groups and group assignments was evolved in cooperation with the editor of this series and on the basis of his discussion in the volume on Supervised Study ^ but the details of all the group assignments, the planning of every lesson — in fact the entire contents of this volume — have been written by Miss Simpson; and to her clear description of what is being done at the Washington Junior High School of Rochester, N. Y., should belong all the credit.

Certain outstanding features of the volume deserve mention in this connection.

1. It is a description of an actual method of teaching, not what ought to be done theoretically, but what has been done successfully by experienced teachers.

2. The description is very clear. Both author and editor

^ Macmillan, 1916.

6 Supervised Skddy in History

have tried to produce a manual that can be understood by any teacher unacquainted with supervised study. Technical terms have been defined carefully. There is considerable repetition of these terms where euphony and literary style might have required synonyms and different kinds of sentence structure. To avoid confusion as much as possible terms such as Units of Instruction, Minimum, Average and Maximum Assignments are repeated in each lesson.

3. The treatment is mainly suggestive. It is not expected that the plans here described could or should be copied in detail. Conditions in Rochester, N. Y., may permit a method of teaching that circumstances elsewhere cannot allow ; but the plans outlined in this volume can be modified to meet conditions in almost any Junior High School or in any departmentalized Elementary School. To some extent the procedure might be adapted to the needs of the Senior High School.

4. The author has cited many comments by pupils under her supervision, regarding their opinions of supervised study. These comments have been allowed to retain the crudity of undeveloped style, but the observing reader will find many of the quotations indicative of no little skill in composition. A sufficient number of these expressions of opinion have been cited from the four grades to show how general was the favorable attitude among the pupils. The following summary of these comments shows their variety :

(i) "We have definite time for review, assignment and study."

(2) "More is accomplished in less time."

(3) "We work on a schedule."

(4) "It is more practical."

Education Viewed from the PupiFs Desk 7

(5) "I have learned how to use a book."

(6) "It requkes the cooperation of the teacher and pupils."

(7) "It seems like a game."

(8) "It teaches pupils to ask questions."

(9) "We learn how to study."

(10) "It teaches us to be independent."

(11) "It allows the pupils to do research work."

(12) "We have the advantage of having many different kinds of books from which to study."

(13) "The program on the board tells us what to do."

(14) "It makes the work easier."

(15) "It saves home work."

(16) "Socialized Recitations enable each person to express his ideas and thoughts about the subject."

(17) "It gives each pupil an equal footing with other pupils."

(18) "Socialized Recitations enable us to see and correct our errors."

(19) " It does not put too much time on one thing."

(20) "It requires self-poise and self-control."

5. Scattered throughout the volume the author explains her reasons for the plan she has followed in teaching history. These explanations should prevent any inference that merely superficial devices have been employed or that the favorable results in her classroom were due not so much to scientific method as to an enthusiastic personality.

6. The development of the various lesson plans differs somewhat from the theoretical forms of these lesson types. The variation, however, is only that which any teacher would find necessary in the actual work of the classroom. There is, as a rule, a strong likelihood that principles and technic of instruction as presented in courses on these subjects will need considerable modification in a shifting variety of classroom conditions.

7. Attention should be directed also to the frequent recurrence of the Socialized Recitation. In fact this type of class management predominates, as it should in all school work. Miss Simpson's success was due mainly to the employment of this kind of class organization. Wherever the pupil is permitted to contribute to educational material and to do so in his own way (under proper supervision) he is likely to be interested in the work.

8. It will be observed that much time in these lessons is spent on training pupils to use the textbook, to manage assignments in reference material, and to construct worth while notebooks. Here we fijid direction in what easily becomes vital and independent studying.

9. Special attention is invited to the Examination Lesson at the close of the book. Its uniqueness does not argue against its feasibility or actual value as a test. The author's analysis of the questions, indicating the mental process involved in answering each of them, is peculiarly appropriate. It is another of her careful statements of reasons for her method of teaching.

10. A sufficient number of lessons are outlined in detail to make it possible for any teacher to apply the principles involved to those which are given in less detail. The division of the course into Units of Instruction and Units of Recitation suggests what each teacher needs to do in order to obtain a prospect of her term's work. The far-ahead look is important if the teacher hopes to make each day's work fit into the large and well-understood purpose of the course.

Here then is the first volume in the new series on Supervised Study in the Various Subjects. Other volumes will appear from time to time, each one to be written by some teacher who has

Education Viewed from the Pupil's Desk g

Intimate knowledge of this type of teaching. Methods of deahng with supervised study will differ with the respective subjects and with each teacher, as well. Other teachers very likely would supervise study differently from the procedure described in this book; but here is one method that has awakened young pupils from lethargy and even hostility, to a real enthusiasm for the study of history. By this method they were introduced to social obligations and privileges. The instinct of play came to the aid of the instinct of curiosity, both of them all-essential in the development of the individual. When pupils say that studying is "like playing a game" we may smile with approval, in company with the shades of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel.

Chapter Two Supervised Study — American History

Essential Factors in the Organization of Supervised Study in History

I. The Unit of Recitation ^

This division of any course of study should consist of three functions, namely:

1. The Daily Review.

2. The Assignment.

3. The Study of the Assignment.

Each of these forms a vital part of the work of every period. The treatment of the daily review in the following lessons is a modification of the prevaihng recitation as generally managed. Let us now consider each of the foregoing functions.

11. The Nature of Each Part of the Unit

I. The Review. — Purpose. To recall the most important facts taught in the lesson of the previous day. There are two essential reasons why this is necessary : First, to determine how thoroughly the class understands the subject matter previously taught ; second, to use this knowledge for the basis of further instruction. The "Re- view" thus takes

^ For detailed information upon the unit of recitation, read "Supervised Study," by Alfred L. Hall-Quest, Macmillan Co., 1916.

Factors in Organization of Supervised Study ii

the place of the usual formal recitation, and should be that portion of the period during which the pupils are given the opportunity to view in a new light the most vital points which they have previously studied.

Method. The method of conducting the review should be as varied as possible. A chief consideration, however, should be to conduct this part of the period in such a manner that the pupils will be stimulated to do purposive thinking. There must be questions and answers, but reverse the order, and encourage the pupils to ask questions of the teacher or of one another. The teacher will then act as a guide and counselor rather than as an interrogator only.

A genuine love for history, a thorough understanding of the great events portrayed, and a realization of the lesson each teaches will thus result from the future study of history. The pupils must be aroused to consider the study with genuine interest. They will then become alert to the real, live problems presented. An actual need for purposive thinking will thus be created. Real thinking has been done only when the pupil has actually mastered the solution of a problem or question. This complete mastery results in thoroughly understanding the problem studied. It is in this way that knowledge is acquired.

It is therefore of the utmost importance that such methods be employed during the daily review as will aid in securing purposive thinking. Definite suggestions for conducting the ''review" may be found in the lessons outlined in subsequent chapters.

The Time for the Review. The first part of the period is naturally the most fitting time to review the work of the preceding day. The length of the time will vary according to the needs of each lesson. Approximately one fifth of the period is a very fair estimate.

2. The Assignment. — This is the portion of the period during which the teacher develops new work with the class ; enriches or supplements the facts which the pupils may find, by giving further detail ; or explains carefully and definitely the work to be studied independently during the study period. It is during this portion of the period, also, that the pupils are led to realize their particular problem for consideration during the study period. This may frequently result in a cooperative assigimient, where pupils and teacher, working together, organize the work to be studied. Here the teacher works largely through the suggestions of the pupils in outlining the material to be studied after their problem is thoroughly understood.

3. Study of the Assignment. — Professor Hall-Quest, in his book "Supervised Study," very clearly shows the importance of dividing any class into three distinct groups, — the superior, the average, and the inferior. As soon as a teacher is able to determine to which group each pupil belongs, it is advisable to reseat the class according to these groups. This should be done in order that the teacher may easily locate those who need special consideration. These groups might be called "A," "B," "C," or ''First," "Second," "Third." Their real significance should not be told to the pupils.

Since we shall find three distinct groups in the class, it necessitates a provision for three distinct divisions in our assignment. Professor Hall-Quest speaks of these as the minimum, average, and maximum assignments. The minimum assignment is the amount required of the inferior group, and of the whole class. Both the minimum and average

Factors in Organization of Supervised Stiddy 13

assignments might be accomplished by the average group of pupils, while the maximum assignment would be prepared only by those pupils who have completed the minimum and average assignments.

The minimum assignment would, of necessity, include the minimum essentials of the course of study. The average and maximum thus afford an excellent opportunity for an enrichment of the minimum requirement by the use of source material, bibliography, newspaper and magazine articles, etc.

The school library has a wealth of material which will furnish ample suggestion in providing for these assignments. Sets of supplementary histories are also helpful. Pupils need training in comparing the texts of different authors. Young pupils are far too willing to accept the facts of a single text as final. Average and maximum assignments do much to overcome such conditions.

III. The Daily Program or Time Schedule for Each

Period

This may contain a suggestion to be adapted to the conditions or needs of a particular school. Its greatest value lies in making the pupils conscious that a given amount of work must be accomplished within a definite period. Experience has proved that the time schedule aids in developing the power to concentrate upon the thing of the moment. This is very important if one wishes to do a given task in a specified time. There is no strain or hurry when the teacher has planned only enough to be accomplished in the allotted time.

This time schedule is written upon the board where every member of the class may easily see it. A pupil is appointed to act as time-keeper. His name is also written on the board.

This " time-keeper " keeps account of the time, and at the end of each part of the program stands and announces that the time is up for that particular part of the period. The responsibihty for the success of the work accomplished during the period is thus shared by both pupils and teacher. Each child feels that he has a personal responsibility toward the work, and this guarantees the success of the lesson.