The vocational education of girls and women

Front matter

Clm JlQ>J£6A

Boot.

i t

Preface

This book is written as a companion volume to Industrial Education — Its Methods, Problems and Dangers, and The Means and Methods of Agricultural Education. Like those books it is addressed to the great army of men and women who are concerned with the education of that large majority of our population which receives its education in the lower schools, and depends upon that education for the development of cultural ideals and vocational aptitudes. It is intended to appeal to students in colleges and normal schools that offer courses in household arts and other vocational courses for women, to school superintendents and principals, to directors of vocational schools, to social workers, to vocational advisers of girls and women, and to the growing number of lay readers who are beginning to study educational problems and affairs.

No attempt has been made to deal with that ever increasing number of professional occupations into which women are now entering, as this branch of the subject is not likely to be neglected, and it is felt that the education of the fourteen to sixteen year old girl is of more vital importance to the nation at large. At this time it is essential that we should not lose sight of the fact that the character of our people will depend even more in the future than it has done in the past upon the education we give to our girls and to our women. Notwithstanding the new avenues of

V vi PREFACE

employment opening up to them in industrial, commercial, and professional life, owing to reorganized schemes of education, lessening opportunities of marriage, and the withdrawal of men from industrial occupations, homemaking is and will become more and more the one industry the character of which will determine the caliber of the nation.

Much has been done towards the vocational education of girls and women both for homemaking and industrial pursuits, but all educational programs have a tendency to become stereotyped, and to fail to respond to changed conditions and new demands. There comes a time when it is wise to take an inventory of what has been accomplished, to make plans for further progress in view of changed conditions, and to consider the obstacles that have to be overcome before that progress can be made. The aim of the book is to do this in the limited though very important field to which it addresses itself.

The primary purpose of this work is not to make original contributions to the subjects discussed, though it is hoped that these are not absent. The purpose has been to present condensed and clear-cut statements of problems, examples of various attempts at their solution, and critical estimates both lay and professional, in as impartial a manner as is possible, of their respective weaknesses and advantages. Little discussion of theory has been attempted. Care has been taken to give the authority for practically every important statement of fact that has been made. Although the book deals mainly with the weaknesses of this branch of our educational system it is confidently hoped that a spirit of optimism pervades the work, an optimism based on the knowledge of progress and achievement in educational affairs, inspiring us to greater efforts in the future.

PREFACE VU

The book is the result of many years experience in practical work in manual training, household science, and industrial education in general. The author has had particular opportunity to study school conditions at first hand in Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, United States, and in the government service of the Province of Ontario.

I am under special obligations to the authorities whose works I have quoted so freely; to Miss E. King of the Library of the Department of Education, Toronto, whose courtesy, whose knowledge of current educational literature, and whose industry in searching for required material have been of great assistance ; to the Bureau of Education, Washington, whose admirable series of bulletins are absolutely indispensable to the student of education; to the authorities of those institutions who have so kindly loaned photographs; and finally to my wife, whose careful criticism, stimulating encouragement, and constant self-denial have rendered this work possible.

Albert H. Leake.

Toronto, November 1, 1917.

List op Illustrations . . . . . . . xix

I. A Neglected Subject 1

II. Reasons for the Neglect op the Subject . . 2

1. Education for girls not considered necessary . 3

2. Sentiment against the industrial employment of

3. Industrial life of women thought to be short . 5

4. Girls must be trained for two vocations . . 7

III. HOMEMAKING WomEN's GREATEST INDUSTRY . . 8

IV. Talent for Homemaking 9

V. Women Must Work 10

VI. Conclusion 11

CHAPTER I The Status op Household Arts Instruction

I. Homemaking Not Considered a Gainful

Occupation 15

II. Number op Women Engaged in Homemaking . 16

III. Definition of Terms .17

IV. History of Instruction in Household Arts . 18

1. Recognition and demonstration of its value . 18

2. Kitchen gardening 19

3. Teaching sewing ...... 21

4. Teaching cookery 22

ix

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

The Present Situation

Changed Conditions in the Home

A State Program for Education in the Household Arts ........

Encouragement of Vocational Education by Federal Governments .....

Report op the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education .....

PAQB

22 23

IX. Introduction

Household Arts Advocates .

1. The utilitarians .

2. The manual training advocates

3. The culturists .

4. The vocationists Two Forms of Household Arts Instruction Distribution of Cookery and Sewing Instruction Criticism of Instruction in Sewing

1. Lack of practical value

2. The exercise method .

3. Methods adopted in Belgium

4. Methods adopted in Boston Obstacles to Household Arts Instruction in the

Schools .....

1. Rapid industrial development .

2. Contempt for manual occupations

3. Insufficient attention in the training schools

4. Limited time in school schedules Teaching Cookery Without Special Equipment The Center System Character of Equipment

1. Absence of a coal or wood stove

2. Changes in Equipment Neglect of Laundry Work .

43 43 43 43 45

47 48 49 51

CONTENTS XI

XI. Teaching Housewifery

1. Housewifery school in Toronto .

2. Housewifery school in Greenfield, Mass. .

3. Housewifery school in Park Ridge, N. J. .

4. Housekeeping centers in New York .

XII. The Teacher

1. Preliminary training required

2. Training in service .....

XIII. Too Much Expected from the Schools

XIV. Current Criticism of Instruction in Cookery

1. Waste of time ......

2. Cooking in microscopic quantities

3. Principles instead of practice

4. Independence, initiative, and self-reliance not

being developed .....

XV. The Family Meal, the Basis of Instruction XVI. Summary of Improvements Needed

PAGB

64 64 67

CHAPTER III Household Arts Instruction in High Schools

I. Obstacles to Household Arts in High Schools 69

1. Girls entering without knowledge of household

2. The high school a college preparatory school . 70

3. The high school a finishing school ... 71

4. Household arts, not cultural or necessary . . 72

II. Center System not Common ..... 75

III. Unsuitable Equipment . . . . . .75

IV. Model Apartments for Teaching Household

Arts 76

1. Washington Irving High School, New York . 77

2. Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock

HiU, S. C 80

V. Cooking in Family Quantities .... 81

1. Methods in Montclair, N. J 81

2. Methods in Sioux City, Iowa .... 82

3. Methods in Lucy Flower Technical High School,

Xll

PAGE

VI. Household Arts Instruction without Special

Equipment 84

VII. Spending Money, One op Woman's Chief

Functions 85

VIII. Two Kinds of Household Arts Instruction

Needed . 87

IX. Modern Methods 88

1. Lucy Flower Technical High School, Chicago . 88

2. Armstrong Manual Training High School,

Washington 92

Chapter IV

I. Opportunities Offered in the Home II. The Cooperation of the Parent

1. Parent-teacher associations

2. Parents' days

3. Demonstrations

4. Luncheons III. School Credit for Work Done in the Home

1. Objections to home credit .

2. The Crete plan .

3. Home credit in FrankHn, Ohio

4. Home credit in Ames, Iowa

5. Other methods .

95 96 98 99 99

100 101 102 104 104 107

CHAPTER V Continued Education in Household Arts

I. Introduction .......

11. Organized Instruction Outside the School

III. Home School of Providence, Rhode Island

IV. Classes for Factory Girls in Boston

V. Part-time Instruction for Housekeepers .

1. The Montclair experiment ....

2. The use of the factory organization .

109 110 110 113

114 115 117

XIU

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

XVI. Necessity for Judicious Advertising

1. Methods in London, England .

2. Advertising to reach the housewife Evening Classes ....

1. Traditions of the day school

2. Changed methods of approach .

3. Unit course system .

The Visiting Nurse The Visiting Housekeeper .

1. QuaUfications ....

2. Work of the visiting housekeeper

3. The visiting housekeeper in rural districts Movable Schools of Household Arts Short Courses Demonstration Trains .

Women's Institutes and Home

ferences ....

Government Bulletins .

Special Agencies

1. The press ....

2. Gas and electric companies

3. Department stores

4. Insurance Companies Private Organizations .

Makers'

Con

PAGE

143 145 147

147 148 148 149 149

CHAPTER VI Household Arts Instruction in Prevocational, Hombmaking

AND Trade Schools

I. The Prevocational School ..... 152

1. Purpose, organization, and method . . . 154

2. Prevocational classes in Boston public schools . 156

3. Division of time in the prevocational school . 159

4. North Bennett Street Industrial School, Boston 160

5. Advantages and disadvantages .... 162 II. The Junior High School 167

1. The eight-four plan . . . . . .167

2. Break between elementary and secondary schools 168

3. Definition 168

XIV

4. Advantages

5. Adaptability to vocational training .

III. HOMEMAKING TRAINING IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

1. Manhattan Trade School for Girls

2. Milwaukee School of Trades for Girls

3. Shoreditch Trade School for Girls

4. Albany Vocational School ....

IV. Schools for Homemakers .... 1. Stout Institute, Menominie, Wisconsin

V. HoMEMAKING CoURSES IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES VI. HOMEMAKING SCHOOLS IN DENMARK

VII. School for Training Maids in Denmark .

169 169

170 171 173 175 176

178 178 182

CHAPTER VII The Boycott of the Kitchen, or the Domestic Servant

Problem

I.

Introduction

II.

A Neglected Question

III.

Dislike of Domestic Service

1. Greater opportunities outside .

2. Social stigma .......

3. Long and irregular hours

4. Lack of sympathetic consideration

IV.

An Old Problem

V.

Mistress and Maid

VI.

Making Household Service Attractive

1. Fair and just agreements

2. Standards of work and wages .

3. Time for rest, recreation, and culture

4. Definite hours fixed

5. Lessening of drudgery

6. Part of the general labor problem

7. Abolition of private employment agencies .

8. Work done outside the home

9. Mistresses with adequate knowledge .

10. Better trained maids

. 209

VII.

Cooperative Housekeeping ....

, 212

CONTENTS XV

CHAPTER VIII General Considerations PAOB

I. Women's Early Industries . .... 219 II. Women's Present Industries .... 221 III. Effect of War upon Employment op Women . 223 'IV. First Appearance of Women in Outside Industries 226

V. Early Vocational Education for Women . . 227

VI. Divided Opinions on the Employment op Women 229

VII. Trade Schools for Girls 230

VIII. Need for Investigation 231

IX. Vocational Training for the Fourteen-to-Six-

TEEN Year Old Girl 234

X. Reasons for Leaving School .... 236

XI. Part-time Education 237

XII. Training for Some Industries Seems Impossible 239

XIII. The Educational Content of Industry . . 241

XIV. Organization of a Factory School . . . 244

Chapter IX

I. What is a Skilled Occupation . . . . 250

II. The Modern Factory System .... 251

III. The Problem Common to All Countries . . 252

rV. Recruiting Unskilled Workers .... 253

V. Industrial Future of the Unskilled . . . 256

VI. Seasonal Nature op Women's Trades . . 257

VII. Remedies Proposed 260

1. Reduce the supply of unsMUed labor . . 260

2. Raise the school age to sixteen years . . 262

3. Continued education 263

4. Training away from unskilled jobs . . . 264

XVI

VIII. The Earnings of Children ....

IX. Adjustment of Industry to New Conditions X. Physical Training and Recreation

PAGE

268 269

Chapter X

Types of Schools and Organizations for the Vocational Training of Women

II. Differentiated Courses 273

III. Prevocational Schools 275

IV. Trade Schools 277

1. First trade school for girls in Europe . . 277

2. Trade schools for girls in London . . . 278

3. Manhattan Trade School for Girls . . . 281

V. The Teacher 292

VI. Disposal of the Product 298

1. Methods at the Manhattan Trade School for

Girls 302

VII. Part-time Education ...... 303

VIII. Women's Educational and Industrial Union,

Boston 306

Chapter XI

I. Introduction .

II. Attendance

III. Types of Schools .

IV. Essential Features

1. Prehminary survey

2. Kind of teacher .

3. Aid of practical business men

4. Business methods of advertising

5. Organization and registration

6. Admission qualifications

7. Practical interest of employer

CONTENTS xvii

PAOB

8. Character of equipment . . . , ,319

9. Regularity of attendance 320

V. Unit Courses ........ 321

VI. Efficient Instruction a Complex Problem . 325

1. Variety of women's occupations . . . 325

2. Investigation of Women's Occupations . . 327

3. Lack of previous education .... 328

4. Length of the working day .... 329

5. Overtime 331

VII. Summary of Factors Contributing to Success . 332

CHAPTER XII Education for Office Service

II. Little Consideration Given to the Subject . 336

III. Results Judged by Numbers of Students . . 337

IV. Criticism of Graduates by Employers . . 339

1. Lack of elementary knowledge .... 339

2. Lack of personality 341

V. Commercial Education in Elementary Schools . 343

1. Previous education determines position in the office 345

2. What the elementary schools can do , . . 346 VI. Commercial Education in the High School . 347

1. Development of courses in Boston . . . 348

VII. Pupils Leaving before Completing the Course 351

VIII. Office Work Becoming Specialized . . . 352

IX. Private Business or Commercial Colleges . 353

1. Solicitation of pupils 354

2. Defects 356

X. Evening Commercial Schools .... 357

CHAPTER XIII Education for Salesmanship

I. Methods of Selling Goods 361

H. A Pioneer School of Salesmanship . . _ . 363

1. Cooperation of the stores with the school . . 364

XVm CONTENTS

FAGB

2. Objects of the instruction 365

3. Examinations . 366

III. Instruction in the Stores 368

IV. Part-time Instruction 370

V. New York State Factory Investigating Commission 371

VI. Instruction in Boston Schools .... 372

VII. Agreements between the Stores and the Schools 372

VIII. Training Teachers 373

IX. Physical Education op the Salesgirl . . . 375

Chapter XIV

II. Rise op the Movement 378

III. Varying Opinions 381

IV. Vocational Guidance in Edinburgh . . . 383 V. Placement of Elementary School Pupils . . 388

VI. Placement of High School Pupils . . . 389

VII. Information Needed Regarding Industries . 390

1. Wages 391

2. Other information needed ..... 396 VIII. Vocational Guidance in the High School . . 397

IX. Qualifications of the Vocational Adviser . 400

X. Conclusion 402

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Chart Showing Number of Women Engaged in the Various

Industrial Occupations 17

Household Arts Kitchen — Normal and Model School,

Toronto ........ facing . 33

Saturday Morning Cooking Class — National Housewives'

League, New York ...... facing . 54''^

Work in the Model Kitchen — Washington Irving High

School, New York ...... facing . 77

Demonstration in Canning — Henry D. Cooke School, Washington, D. C. . . . . . . . facing . 81

Girls Fitting Garments — Albany Vocational School facing . 152 Class in Homemaking — Albany Vocational School facing . 176 Class in MilUnery — Albany Vocational School . facing . 234 Chart Showing Seasonal Fluctuations in the Cloak, Suit, and

Skirt Industry, New York 260

Chart Showing Activities of Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston ........ 275

Glove Making — Manhattan Trade School for Girls facing . 281 Operating Department — Manhattan Trade School for Girls

facing . 291

Class in Office Practice — Julia Richman High School, New

A Demonstration Sale — Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston facing . 365 -

Chart Showing Difference in Wages Received by Girls with

and without Training 394 '

X

XIX

THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OF GIELS AND WOMEN

I. A neglected subject.

II. Homemaking women's greatest industry.

III. Talent for homemaking.

IV. Women must work.

V. Conclusion.

A neglected subject. The social, economic, and educational demands of the twentieth century have forced into the realm of practical politics many questions that were previously considered as the fantastic dreams of doctrinaires, theorists, and visionaries. Among such questions two stand out prominently: the position of women and the problem of industrial education. At first sight there seems to be no intimate relationship between these two questions, but on closer examination the connection becomes more apparent, and they really merge into one problem, which may be termed the " woman in industry."

Until recent years the question of women in industry outside the home was not considered worthy of discussion, and any discussion that did take place was directed towards keeping women out of industry rather than towards helping them to work satisfactorily in the occupations in which they were engaged.

One striking feature of the mass of educational literature that has been issued from the press during the last twenty years is the attention that has been given to the question of industrial education. Though its methods are still perhaps chaotic and in a state of flux, its necessity is no longer seriously questioned. In studying this literature one is impressed by the fact that remarkably little attention has been paid to the industrial education of girls and women. One can read thousands of pages without finding a single specific reference to the needs and requirements of the girl. Even in one of the most recent books the following passage occurs : " The discussion deals largely with the work that has been developed for boys. It is believed, however, that the principles apply also to the field of girls' work and it is hoped that this somewhat neglected side may receive some stimulus from this presentation."^

The basic principles which apply to the industrial training of boys and men certainly apply to some extent to the training of girls and women, but the points at which their training should be differentiated are so many as to make the training of girls almost a separate problem.

In a recent bulletin it is stated that " in the many reports published in the United States concerning industrial and commercial education in Germany, comparatively little space has been given to continuation schools for girls. This has been due to the relative unimportance of these schools industrially and commercially compared with the schools for boys." 2

There are several reasons which make it advisable to study

1 Leavitt and Brown, Prevocational Education in the Public Schools. ' "Problems of Vocational Education in Germany." United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1915, No. 33.

the vocational education of girls and women as though it constituted a problem entirely different and distinct from that of the vocational education of boys and men.

The proportion of women entering industry is constantly growing, and this gives rise to special questions as to the effect of this increasing employment on the conditions of home life and particularly on the rearing of children. The condition of women wage-earners is in many respects less satisfactory than that of men.

Fewer skilled occupations are open to women, and they are entering the low-paid unskilled industries in larger numbers. Those who enter the industries from fourteen to eighteen years of age may marry before they reach the age of twenty-five, and with this possibility before them they look upon their employment as a temporary makeshift and therefore are not anxious to learn then' trade properly. As a result of this they are able to command wages which average only about one half those that are paid to men. The legislatures of the various states have long agreed that special legislation is necessary for the protection of working women, and the Supreme Court of the United States has declared that woman's " physical nature and the evil effects of overwork upon her and her future children justify legislation to protect her from the greed as well as the passion of men."

The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education in 1912 appointed a special secretary for the consideration of women's requirements in the direction of legislation and education. All these facts tend to prove that the vocational education of girls and women needs consideration apart from that of men.

Reasons for the neglect of the subject. Education for girls considered unnecessary. Until recent years extended education for girls was considered neither necessary nor desirable. The gentlemen of the court of Charles II thought that women were educated enough " if they could spell out the recipes of pies and puddings the manufacture of which nature had intrusted to their tender mercies." ^ According to Rousseau women were specially constituted to please men, and their training should be devoted to this end: '' To please men, to be useful to them, to make themselves loved and honored by them, to educate them when young, to care for them when grown old, to counsel them, to console them, and to make life agreeable and sweet to them, these are the duties of women at all times and what should be taught them from their infancy." And again he says, " A woman of culture is to be avoided like a pestilence, she is the plague of her husband, her children, her servants, her friends, everybody." ^

As late as fifty years ago it was not considered necessary to give girls much education. All the training needed for the performance of their household duties could be secured in the home itself, for there were then many household trades carried on which have since found their way into the factories. The girl received thorough training for her life work and did not need specialization. Even as late as twenty years ago the rule for the future of the young girl was simple and bald in the extreme. She was directed to concentrate her attention first on getting married. If all her efforts failed to secure a husband, she tried school teaching, and if this in its turn failed, she could try work in another woman's kitchen.

1 "Women in Public Life." Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1914.

» Darroch, Alexander, Education and the New Utilitarianism, quoted.

Sentiment against the industrial employment of women. Notwithstanding the historical fact that woman has always been in industry, there is a traditional feeling that she ought not to be so employed, and this has accounted for a great deal of the neglect in her training. We have surrounded our girls with an atmosphere of unreality, and allowed our conduct to be dictated by principles which do not square with present conditions. We seem to have cherished the idea that we could teach them a little household science, music, fancy work, and other accomplishments, and by the time they had absorbed this, they would be ready to settle down in homes of their own, carefully protected for the remainder of their lives from the confusion and worry caused by the rush of modern industry.

According to the latest census of the United States (1910) there were 8,075,772 women ten years of age and over, gainfully employed, representing 23.4 per cent of all the females of that age. This number does not include the women employed in their own homes. Each year many thousands of girls fourteen and fifteen years of age are entering occupations which are doing nothing to fit them for further usefulness. When we remember these facts, we recognize that we are confronted with a condition and not a theory. Accepting the fact that in the present social and economic condition of society, girls in large numbers are, and will continue to be, wage-earners, should not every effort be made to train them in such a way as to provide that their future usefulness will be increased rather than impaired ?

The industrial life of women thought to he short. There is a widespread impression that the industrial life of women is short, and that it is only entered into as a temporarj^ expedient until they marry. It is frequently stated that women continue to be wage-earners for an average period of seven years only, and this statement has been accepted almost universally by advocates of industrial education. This assumption has influenced profoundly the character of all attempts to solve the problem. It will readily be seen that training girls who are to remain in industry for only seven years is a very different problem from training those who are to remain there for the whole of their working lives. Girls are unwilling to undertake long apprenticeship for a working life which they think will be short. Owing to this idea, the tendency is for young girls to enter upon unskilled work which brings them an immediate wage return but offers no opportunity for advancement.

Widely as this theory has been accepted there is now reason to question its truth. How the idea arose is not clear, but that it was based on any statistical evidence is very doubtful. The Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation has now presented some evidence on the other side. Seven different occupations were chosen, and an attempt made to discover the ages of all the women who were employed in them in cities of the United States of over 50,000 population. The occupations were those in which the number of women workers exceeded one for every thousand of the population. The number of women engaged in these pursuits was 857,743. This was just half of all the women engaged in gainful employments in these cities. The seven occupations were housekeeper, nursemaid, laundress, saleswoman, teacher, servant, and dressmaker. More than half of those engaged in each occupation were over the following ages : housekeepers forty, nursemaids thirty-six, laundresses thirty-four, saleswomen twenty-three, teachers thirty-two, dressmakers thirty-one, and servants thirty-seven.

While the ages at which these workers entered industry could not be ascertained, it is fairly safe to assume that those who were working at the age of forty, thirty, and in the majority of cases at twenty-five, had been so engaged for more than seven years. The percentage of women belonging to the different age groups is shown in the following table :

Yeaks

Years

Yeabs

Years

65 Yeabs

11 Months

11 Months

11 Months

11 Months

Housekeepers

15.7

44.6

32.9

6.8

Nursemaids . .

23.1

23.7

4.2

Laundresses . .

2.4

24.7

49.5

2.4

Saleswomen . .

5.7

55.2

34.8

4.3

Teachers . . .

29.5

11.7

0.8

Dressmakers . .

2.6

28.9

51.6

14.1

1.8

Servants . . .

4.1

40.8

42.8

10.8

1.5

From the above investigation the conclusion is warranted that if we educate girls only for the duties of ultimate marriage, and not also for those of industrial life, we are doing them a demonstrably grievous wrong.

Girls must he trained for two vocations. The fact that girls must be trained for two vocations, — homemaking and industry, — and, owing to the seasonal character of their industrial work, should in some cases be trained for three, has somewhat complicated the problem and led to the postponement of attempts at its solution. Thus the education of the girl is a double problem. It must include training in two distinct vocations, neither of which can be considered sufficiently permanent to justify the exclusion of the other. Though the two vocations have some qualities in common, it cannot be said that training in one is adequate preparation for efficiency in the other. ,

The education of the boy as compared with that of the gu*l is a comparatively simple matter ; for the boy, when he has once found himself, enters an industry to stay there as long as he is physically fit and industrially efiicient. The girl, however, may marry and become a homemaker for the remainder of her life ; or, she may be under the necessity of having to perform a double function, being compelled to support partly the home which she manages ; or, again, she may have to return to industry after having been engaged for some years in homemaking. All considerations therefore point to the conclusion that a woman should be able to support herself outside the home, should the necessity arise for her doing so. This, of course, will be disputed, but the number of married women and widows in industry is too great to allow of any other conclusion.

Homemaking women's greatest industry. The greatest industry in which woman is engaged is housekeeping or homemaking. In the nimaber of persons engaged, it is ahead of all other occupations. According to the thirteenth census (1910) there are in the United States about thirty-one million women over ten years of age. Of these about one and a half million are working in shops and factories, and five and a half million are employed in domestic service. Of the remaining twenty-four million no mention is made, since homemaking is not considered a " gainful occupation." Even when we make allowance for the woman who goes back into industry, and for the homemaker who is also a wage-earner, it remains true that homemaking is a trade for every woman, and the demand is universal.

The home is still " woman's sphere " and probably for most women always will be so. It must not be forgotten, however, that the home of to-day is very different from what it was even twenty years ago ; that it is destined to undergo still further changes, and that efforts to p^erpetuate it on its traditional basis will very largely fail. Too many still look upon the household arts as the '' Cinderella " of the educational family. When a girl positively cannot make progress with ordinary school studies as traditionally taught, she is put into the " cookery class." The fact is the domestic industries are held in contempt by many women. This has gone so far as to attach a social stigma to domestic service. Talent for homemaking. It has been thought until recently that there was no need to teach this industry, since every girl acquired the ability to engage in it by instinct, directly the necessity arose. " The ability to cook is something with which every girl is by tradition endowed. Theoretically she acquires this ability either by inheritance or by instinct. No number of poor cooks seem to offset the belief that skill in this trade will always come at the call of necessity. . . . There exists a well-defined prejudice against