The philosophical basis of education

Front matter

ES9

THE PHILOSOPHICAL teASIS OF EDUCATION

HOLLAND MERRITT SHKE'VES

Preface

My only reason for writing a volume under the title of this one is the fact that the present status of things in education seems to me to demand a further clarification of our educational thought and practice. If we were all thinking clearly, and getting the most efficient results possible, there would be no need of adding another to the present stock of books.

It is my belief, however, that clearer thinking is possible, based on the already accumulated experience of mankind. It would be possible to gain much better results and do it more easily, effectively, and with greater pleasure, if we would utilize the amazing power that comes from clear thinking. Now clear thinking is not a secret and mysterious power given to few and withheld from the many, but it is a power each person may possess and make use of in his own experience.

This clearness of thought comes from our ability to utilize to the best advantage our past experience. To do this, we are obliged to make use of our powers of reflection in order to determine the real nature and meaning of our experience. It means little to have experience, but it means much to see by the light of reflection what this experience means for life as a whole. The significance of our experience does not float on the surface, but it takes an experienced diver to bring it up from the depths and mire of isolated and fragmentary bits of human experience. There are experienced divers of pearls and other precious materials, and so there are those experienced in bringing to the light of clear thought the true significance of human experience.

It is in the field of educational thought, as well as in other departments of human knowledge, such as business, religion, domestic and social life, that we are in great need of clear thinking. Clear thinking will lead to more definite and exact methods of habit formation and action. Clear thinking can be induced only through persistent habits of reflection on the data viii Preface

of our experience. It takes insight to develop foresight. We need more penetration and concentration if we would reach the deeper meaning of our human experience. The meaning and significance of our experience do not rise to the surface like cream to be skimmed off with the crude instrumentality of common sense. Rather it takes the pulling power of reflective thought, of analysis, synthesis, comparison and the like, to bring out this deeper meaning.

It will be the object of this volume to aid as much as its author is able to a clearing up of the thought process, in its relation to the data of our educational experience. It should aid in showing the need for guiding principles and reflective analysis in the field of education. In short it should assist the reader to see the necessity of developing a more systematic and thoughtful way of approach to the great problems of education. If it does this much it will contribute toward the development of a philosophy of education.

The point of view here adopted is that of the idealist and it reflects the voluntaristic tendency in idealism, rather than the intellectualistic. The emphasis is rather on action than on knowledge, and yet the two points of view are here inseparably connected.

It will be noted that knowledge is essential to properly directed activity, and that activity is essential to the best understanding. Knowing and doing are the two aspects of the same psychophysical process and our deeper philosophical reflection will rather tend to confirm this fact than to deny it.

The original manuscript of this book has been rewritten and revised with the idea of making it a suitable text-book for college and normal school courses in the Philosophy of Education, or the Theory of Education. It ought also serve a valuable purpose as a reference book in courses in Philosophy, Education and Science.

It would be rather a hopeless task to attempt here any adequate acknowledgment of the sources of help and inspiration I have received along the line of the subject here under treatment. My more enlightened conscience and my sense of loyalty to loyalty, as well as my hope of a larger self-realization, urge upon me the mention of a few names at least. I could not fail to mention Professor Josiah Royce, whose wonderful

Preface ix

power of penetration helped to lead me into a field of larger truth and reality. Nor should I fail to mention Professor George Herbert Palmer, who made life's ideals a matter of serious consequence to me. I have come through his teachings to regard man's highest calling and duty that of pursuing worthy and noble ideals. Ideals are not realizable unless we know the means of realizing them. And just here the wonderful world of psychology was opened up to me by that eminent psychologist, Professor Hugo Miinsterberg.

I owe much to other teachers and to scores of authors but I cannot mention them here, and I sincerely hope that the writing of this volume will not cast discredit on those whose names I have mentioned. The book that has meant more to me than any other I have ever read is Royce's Philosophy of Loyalty.

I am indebted to my wife, Anna E. Shreves, for her patient labor on both the Index of Names and the Index of Subjects and for other helps with the manuscript.

If there is anything in this volume that will contribute to higher, nobler, and deeper thinking in regard to our educational experience, I shall feel that my labor has not been spent in vain.

R. M. Shreves.

Kearney, Nebraska

December i, 1917.

Contents

1 The Aim of This Volume 17

2 The Point of View Here Taken . 17

3 The Need of Such a Work iS

BOOK I. THE AIMS, SCOPE, AND METHODS OF SCIENCE I The Aims oe Science 27

1 Science as Observation of Facts 27

2 Science as Correlation and Classification of Facts .... 28

3 Science as Description of Facts 29

4 Science as Explanation of Facts 29

5 Science as Generalization and Law 30

6 Science as Application- Applied Knowledge 31

7 The Aim of Science Stated in Full 32

8 The World of Science as the World of Description and Ex-

planation 32

9 The World of Description vs. The World of Appreciation . . 33 10 Summary of the Aims of Science 34

II The Scope, or Field of Science 35

1 The Phenomenal World of Time and Space 35

2 The Special Fields of Science 35

3 The Physical Sciences and Chemistry, Physics, Geology, etc. , 36

4 The Biological Sciences— Botany, Zoology, and Physiology . 36

5 The Science of Psychology 36

6 The Social Sciences — Histor>^ and Sociology 37

7 The Abstract Sciences of Relations — Mathematics and Logic . 38

8 The Normative and Descriptive Sciences 38

9 Summary of the Scope of Science 39

III The Methods of Science 40

1 Observation, Classification, Description and Explanation as

Stages of Developments Rather than Methods of Science . 40

2 Analysis and Synthesis as Methods 40

3 Induction and Deduction as Methods 41

4 Experimental Method 42

5 The Method of Introspection 43

6 Balance of Methods 44

7 Summary of the Methods of Science 44

xi xii Contents

IV The Relations of Science to Lifk 45

1 The Age of Science 45

2 Science and the Life of Reason 46

3 Science Gives Increased Facilities for Life but Does not Give

Its Meaning 47

4 We Must Turn to Philosophy for the Meaning of Life ... 48

5 General Summary of the Aims, Scope, Methods, and Relations

of Science 48

PART II. THE AIMS, SCOPE AND METHODS OF PHILOSOPHY I The Aims of Philosophy 53

1 The World of Description and the World of Appreciation . 53

2 Philosophy, the View of the Whole of Life: Science, of a Part . 54

3 The Aim of Philosophy 55

4 Philosophy as Appreciation 57

5 Summary of the Aims of Philosophy 59

II The Scope or Field of Philosophy 61

1 Psychology and Philosophy Compared and Contrasted . . 61

2 Data of Philosophy the Whole of Human Experience ... 62

3 Philosophy Always Views Experience from Normati\'e Aspect 63

4 Philosophy Includes Several Special Viewpoints 64

5 Metaphysics as the Science of Reality 65

6 Epistemology as the Science of Knowledge 66

7 Logic as the Science of Correct Thinking 67

8 Ethics as the Science of Right Conduct 68

9 Aesthetics as the Science of the Beautiful 69

10 Philosophy of Religion 69

11 Our Chief Concern is with Ethics 69

12 Summary of the Scope of Philosophy 69

III The Methods of Philosophy 71

1 General Methods of Philosophy not Unlike Those of Science . 71

2 Philosophy Requires Reflection 72

3 Value of Reflection 74

4 Summary of the Methods of Philosophy 75

IV The Relations of Philosophy to Life 76

1 The Age in Which Philosophy Arises 76

2 Philosophy and the Life of Reason 77

3 Philosophy and the Meaning and Value of Life 78

4 General Sunamary 79

PART HI. THE GENERAL RELATIONS OF SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY

I Science and Philosophy Compared and Contrasted . . . 2,^

1 Aims of Science and Philosophy Compared and Contrasted . 83

2 Scope of Science and Philosophy Compared and Contrasted . 84

3 Methods of Science and Philosophy Compared and Contrasted 85

4 Description and Interpretation the Two Aspects of Reality . 85

Contents xiii

II General Summary and Conclusions of the First Three Parts 88

1 Summary of the Relations of Science and Philosophy ... 88

2 Relations of the First Three Parts to Part IV 89

PART IV. THE RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION I The Philosophical Aspects of Education 93

1 Relations of Philosophy and Life 93

2 The Philosophy of Education as the Meaning and Value of

Education 93

3 Educational Experience 94

4 Various Philosophical Aspects 95

II The Metaphysical Aspect of Education 96

1 Metaphysics an Effort to Think Clearly 96

2 Every One Has a Metaphysics of Some Sort 96

3 Metaph3^sics as a Criticism of the Principles of Science . . 97

4 Metaphysics the Science of Sciences 97

5 Metaphysics a Search for First Principles 98

6 Metaphysics the Science of Reality 99

7 Appearance and Reality 100

8 The Cardinal Principle of Voluntaristic Idealism: Reality the

Absolute Will or Purpose loi

9 The Problem of One and the Many: Fact and Purpose . . 102

10 The Problem of Time and Space 103

11 The Relation of Mind and Matter 103

1 2 The Problem of the Infinite 103

13 The Problem of Self or Personality 104

14 God, Immortality, and the Soul 104

16 Educational Implications of Metaphysics 106

III The Epistemological Aspects of Education 108

1 How Can One Thing Know Another ? 108

2 Relation of Epistemology and Metaphysics 108

3 Relation of Epistemology and Psychology 109

4 The Central Problem of Epistemology no

5 Knowledge as a Search for the Universal 112

6 Scepticism as the Denial of the Universal 113

7 Kant to the Rescue of Knowledge 114

8 Naturalism and Positivism 115

9 Realism as a Theory of Knowledge 116

10 Pragmatism as a Theory of Knowledge 116

11 Empiricism and Rationalism 118

12 Intuitionism and Mysticism 119

13 Idealism as a Theory of Knowledge 120

15 Educational Implications of Epistemology 123

IV The Logical Aspects OF Educational Theory 127

1 Definition and Meaning of Logic 127

2 The Data of Logic 128 xiv Contents

3 Logic and Common Sense 128

4 Logic and the Descriptive Sciences 129

5 Logic and Psychology 131

6 Logic and Metaphysics 131

7 Logic and Epistemology 132

8 Systems of Logic 133

9 General Methods of Logic 134

ID The Problems of Logic 135

11 The Logic of Mysticism "... 137

12 The Logic of Pragmatism 137

13 The Logic of Idealism 138

15 The Educational Implications of Logic 140

V Educational Implications of the Philosophy of Religion . 143

1 The Definition of the Philosophy of Religion 143

2 Philosophy of Religion and Common Sense 144

3 Philosophy of Religion and Science 145

4 Philosophy of Religion and Metaphysics 146

5 Philosophy of Religion and Epistemology 147

6 Philosophy of Religion and Logic 148

7 Philosophy of Religion and Ethics 148

8 Philosophies of Religion 149

9 The Religion of Platonism 149

10 The Religion of Neoplatonism 150

11 The Religion of Epicureanism 151

12 The Religion of Stoicism 152

13 The Religion of Positivism, Naturalism, and Materialism . . 153

14 The Religion of Mysticism 154

15 The Religion of Pragmatism 155

16 The Religion of Idealism 156

VI The Aesthetic Aspects of Educational Theory .... 160

1 Meaning and Definition of Aesthetics 160

2 The Relation of Common Sense and Aesthetics 161

3 The Psychology versus the Philosophy of Art 161

4 The Ideal of Art 164

5 The Standards or Criteria of Art 165

6 The Relation of Metaphysics and Aesthetics 167

7 The Relation of Logic and Aesthetics 168

8 The Relation of Philosophy of Religion and Aesthetics . . . 169

9 The Relation of Ethics and Aesthetics 170

10 The Problems of Aesthetics 171

11 The Different Theories of Art 173

12 The Aesthetics of Idealism 174

14 The Educational Implication of Aesthetics 177

Contents xv

VII The Ethical Aspects of Educational Theory . . . . i8o

1 The Meaning and Definition of Ethics i8o

2 Ethics and Common Sense i8o

3 Ethics as a Science i8i

4 The Relation of Metaphysics and Ethics i8i

5 The Relation of Epistemology and Ethics 182

6 The Relation of Ethics and Logic 183

7 The Relation of Ethics and Religion 183

8 The Relation of Ethics and Aesthetics 184

9 The Problems of Ethics 185

10 Systems of Ethics 185

11 The Ethics of Hedonism 186

12 The Ethics of Stoicism 187

13 The Ethics of Platonism 187

14 The Ethics of Naturalism 189

15 The Ethics of Pragmatism 189

16 The Ethics of Idealism 190

18 Educational Implications of Ethics 193

VIII Retrospect and Prospect 194

1 The Scientific and Philosophical Aspects of Life 194

2 The Scientific and Philosophical Aspects of Educational Theory 196

3 The Special Philosophical Aspects of Educational Theory . , 196

Part V. Educational Implication Of The Ethics Of Idealism

I Ethics as the Search for the Highest Good 201

1 Pre-Socratic Philosophy 201

2 Post-Socratic Philosophy 201

3 The Meaning and Value of Experience 202

4 Facts and Purposes in Life 203

5 The Descriptive and Normative Aspects 204

6 The Ideal Values of Life 205

7 The Good as Will or Purpose 207

8 The Individual and Social Aspects of this Aim 209

9 Self-Realization as the Ultimate Goal 212

10 The Reality of the Ideal 214

11 The Concept of Loyalty 214

II Aims AND Means IN Education 217

1 The Aim of Life and the Aim of Education 217

2 The Conflict in Modern Pedagogy ....... 218

3 Education as a Normative Science 220

4 Education as a Descriptive Science 222

5 Aims and Means of Education 224

6 The Function of Supervision 225 xvi Contents

III The Aim of Education as Self-Realization 229

1 The Ideal Values of Education: Truth, Beauty, Goodness, and

Religion 229

2 The Unity of the Ideal Values 229

3 The Personal Factor in the Educative Process 230

4 Self-Realization as the All-Comprehensive Educational Ideal 231

5 The Individual and Social Views of Education Reconciled . . 232

IV The Relation of This Ideal to Educational Practice . . 238

1 The Relation of Theory and Practice 238

2 Educational Theory as an Explanation of Educational Ex-

perience • • 240

3 The Actual and the Ideal as Part and Whole of Experience 242

4 The Value of a Life Ideal 245

5 The Meaning of Character and Personality 247

6 Individual Differences 248

7 Self-Activity, Self-Responsibility, and Self-Realization . . . 250

8 Education and a Plan of Life 252

9 The Vocational and Cultural Ideals Reconciled 253

V The Teacher and the Recitation 258

1 The Teacher as a Factor in the Educational Process ... 258

2 The Recitation as a Factor in the Educational Process . . . 260

3 Education through Directed Spontaneous Activity .... 262

4 Impression and Expression 263

5 The Doctrine of Interest and Apperception 265

6 The Problem of Discipline 266

7 Connected Thought and Class Method 268

8 Organization of Interests 269

9 The Unity of Personality through Self-Realization .... 270 10 Summary 270

VI Conclusion 272

2 Educational Readjustment 273

3 Philosophy and Science as a Basis for Educational Theory and

Practice 273

4 Educational Guidance 274

5 Organization and Efficiency 274

6 The Schools of To-morrow 275

Index 285

Introduction

1 The Aim of This Volume. The specific Aim of this Volume as the title implies is to trace the educational implications of Voluntaristic Ethics. It is not meaningless to ask, What is the significance of Ethics for Education ? What is the Ethical Aspect of education? Especially these questions have meaning if we start out on this journey of thought with the metaphysical assumption of the unity of knowledge. We have not time, nor is this the place, to trace the metaphysical or epistemological implications of this assumption. We shall, however, set out with this assumption as part of our equipment. As we journey along we hope to point out the reasonableness of this assumption but our great task is to show what ethics has to do with education.

2 The Point of View Here Taken. In showing the relations of ethics and education, or the educational implications of ethics, two alternative methods of treatment are possible. The historical method might be adopted and the several ethical systems shown up in their relation to education. Again the philosophical view might be taken and the underlying meaning of these relations might be traced in their deeper significance. The latter is the point of view here adopted. It will be my aim to follow up the fundamental principles of ethical theory and show the educational implications of these.

It has already been stated that my point of view is all the way through that of voluntaristic idealism. Thus the work is ethical rather than pedagogical, yet it is intended by showing the meaning of the leading Ethical principles of idealism for education to be of value in a pedagogical way. As it has been briefly stated the object is to contribute to clearer thought in education, and this is to be brought about by the observance of certain ethical principles, as well as by the use of more scientific methods in education.

3 The Need of Such a Work. There is a sad lack of adherence to well thought out ethical principles in education. We have scarcely taken time to look within our Education to see what it is all about. We are still like children and pay more attention to things that move about us than to the laws and principles that govern our nature. Perhaps we should not be too harsh for it is only an evidence of our immaturity. But individuals grow older and so do nations, and when we reach the period that the reflection and insight begin to develop, we should make use of these powers in promoting the welfare of man and society.

This present age of ours is best characterized as the age of industrialism and commercialism. It is the age of rapid developments along these lines, and progress here has been made possible mainly through recent developments in the physical sciences. This is an evidence of the objectivity of our individual and national mind.

We find the present age in which we live making strong demands on us from without, and scarcely any pressure to bring about the development of the inner man, except in so far as this is the natural consequence of this progress in a material way. Certainly this material progress has had great value in giving expression to a larger life, but the life that is developing is not always consciously assisted in its advance, but rather follows as a natural and fortuitous consequence of the larger social and economic sphere in -which recent years find us moving.

But the ethical life of man demands more conscious and rational guidance than this. Not only must the sphere of activity grow larger, but there must be conscious guidance from man's moral nature within. There is a call from the great within as well as a pressure of economic and social necessity from without. We are in danger under the exaggerated pressure of necessity to live too much in the present and to give too little attention to the demands of a truly purposive life. Stevenson must have had a similar thought when he said, "And when the present is so exacting, who can annoy himself about the future," and this exacting circumstance of external necessity has continued to act for a long time. When man loses sight of a higher goal he will seize a lower one. His nature demands a goal, a purpose. Progress of any kind demands a goal toward which movement is directed. And our goal will be low or high, worthy or unworthy, according to the kind of persons we are. The best way to estimate a person or a nation is to observe what ideals are pursued and the pulling power these have on the life. All ideals have pulling power, and they sometimes pull at cross purposes. X^^Y should rather point to an ultimate purpose in which they all unite in a higher unity, a deeper meaning and reality.

Our ideals would, if they are what they should be, lead us to love and be loyal to our fellows and their true purposes, and this would be vastly better than to go out to battle against them. The right ideals will lead men to unite against evil, waste and inefficiency, but not to kill each other. The present great war that threatens the entire world is a symptom of a sadly diseased condition of man. I do not think this is an indication that man has fallen from grace ; rather it looks as if he had never worked himself into very good favor with his God yet.

There are many evidences besides war that suggest man's inhumanity toward man and his undeveloped nature. Strife and destructive competition in industry, the chasm between labor and industry, capitalist and wage earner, are other evidences and perhaps follow as a natural consequence upon our exaggerated emphasis of the industrial and commercial ideals of our age.

And yet we see constantly an undercurrent moving in a different direction. This deeper view and its significance for life is not always observed. Man must train his reflective powers to see the deeper movements and tendencies in life as well as to select the proper goal of life. Indeed this is the only correct way to select his goal at all.

We could not afford to lose a single inch gained by industrialism and the material progress of our age. We need all that has been gained and much more. But we cannot gain all that is needed in our life by advancing along these lines, for this only produces more wealth and leisure without greater power of enjoying either. Under such a regime our wants and desires develop much more rapidly than the truer and higher self to which these instrumentalities should minister.

There has been a rapid growth in the demand for luxury in this our industrial age, and it is not to be discredited so long as we know what we are doing and keep the balance of our ideals that the higher ethical life demands. While we are noticing the trend in this direction there comes the cry that, "In the face of a growing desire for luxury and ease, there must be a conscious effort to cultivate thrift, simplicity, and a more spiritual sense of values." (Trowbridge: The Home School, p. 27.) And this demand is quite as urgent as that for luxury. Let us keep our balance so far as possible and welcome any suggestion that gives a better insight into the true meaning and values of a higher life.

It is the business of ethics to reveal the higher values and purposes of life, it is the duty of man through his personal efforts and through the agencies and various institutions of society to strive to the uttermost to realize these ideals and purposes. In this book we are directly concerned with the true ethical aims and values of life, and with the demands thus placed upon the schools as an agency in realizing these ideals and purposes. But we w^ell know that the degree in which we can expect the schools to realize the higher purposes of life is determined largely by the nature and effectiveness of this organization within itself. Unfortunately the American public schools are not a well organized system. They have developed piece-meal and there has been little effort to correlate the parts into a well organized whole. Indeed it w-ill take several decades to systematize our education. But happily there are evidences of growth in the direction of better organization. And there is room for considerable development yet. The unscientific patch-work of our American education is well put in the following quotations.

William T. Harris in his preface to Boone's Education in the United States (p. 6) says: "States first establish colleges and universities and next free common elementary schools, and afterwards gradually fill in intermediate links of the system, and then add supplementary institutions." J. F. Brown in his The American High School (p. 366) says much the same thing in the following words: "Historically the American schools have developed from above downward and from below upward, meeting in the middle. It is difficult to see how the evolution of American education could have been different from what it actually has been ; but the time has certainly come w^hen we should begin at the bottom and rebuild our public educational system to the top. The guiding factors in this important work should be a sound psychology and a sound philosophy considered from both the individual and the social point of view. Philosophical and social ideals will help us to define the aim of education, psychology will teach the steps by which that aim can best be attained; both will assist in determining the best educational content, that is, the curriculum." Now it should be mentioned here that the seriousness of this crazy-quilt style of American education becomes evident when we remember that it is the business of this institution to realize in the fullest measure possible the greatest purposes and values of life, in other words the highest or best life. Lest it be thought that I have placed too large a burden on education I here quote a passage from The School and Society Magazine (Vol. I, p. 37), which reads as follows:

"In our industrial, social, civic, and religious democracy everything waits on education. No real progress and no lasting improvement in any line of life is possible except through the better education of the people. The deepest meaning of democracy is equality of opportunity. This is impossible without equality of opportunity for citizenship, and for productive occupations. Therefore the right education of all the people becomes our chief concern, and to provide better and more adequate means thereto must be the most important task of society and state. Among the agencies of education the public school may, I believe, fairly be considered the most important."

From the foregoing it ought to be evident that more clear thinking is needed in order to eliminate the crudities of modern education and make our schools more effective instruments for good in the hands of society. Our very first duty is to clear up our minds as to what is our aim in education. Educational aims are the very first consideration in education. Nothing can be placed before aims, or ideals, in education, — or in any other field of activity. It is interesting to note that Harrington Emerson insists vigorously on "Ideals" as the first of the "Twelve Principles" of industrial efficiency. Just so it is in education. It is time vvc were clearinjz; our ideas as to the goal or purpose of education. There are no short-cuts in settling this matter. The task can never be settled except by clear and deep thinking along ethical and general philosophical lines.

It is not thought that ethical reflection alone will solve all the problems of education. It cannot. The aim of ethics is less ambitious than that. It can only give a point of view, and as R. L. Stevenson saj^s, it is a point of view rather than points of view that we are so much in need of to-day. But the battle is half fought at least when we are clear as to the aim of education.

When it comes to a matter of deciding what are the means or methods to be used in education we are no longer concerned with ethics, but must turn to the descriptive sciences such as psychology, biology and sociology for help. But this distinction between the function of ethics and the descriptive sciences is not so evident that it can be passed by with a mere mention. It wnll occupy much of our time in this book to make clear this important distinction, a distinction without which no clear thinking on educational problems is possible, and without which progress is uncertain and unscientific. But we have had enough uncertainty in education. Let us now use our best efforts to avoid past blunders, rule-of-thumb and trial-and-error methods. Can't we see yet that aims are the first consideration in education and means and methods serviceable only when we know what ends we want to accomplish? What would you think of a tool maker who set about making a tool without the least idea of the use it was to be put to? What shall w^e think of ourselves if we continue to develop means and methods without knowing what ends they are to serve? Or, may it not be that we already know the ends but that we have not questioned the value of these ends to see whether they fit into a larger system of things? Perhaps they are working at cross purposes w^'th one another. In which case there is danger of friction and lost motion, which means a reduction of efficiency. It stands to reason that we should not become less efficient than we are. It takes a certain amount of genius to overcome our inertia to the extent of re-thinking and re-shaping our educational aims and methods.