The school as a social institution; an introduction to the study of social education

Preface

With the growing interest of the pubUe in education, and the wider recognition of the prime social importance of the work of teaching, there has been a great expansion in the conception of the nature and purpose of the school. Whatever the remote functions of this important institution have been considered to be, it has been, and now too often is, regarded merely as a place where children are given possession of a definitely prescribed amount of subject matter. That crude, though fundamental, conception has been modified (especially for teachers) by the force of a psychological movement which has emphasized the idea that it is the development of the child that should be the great work of the school. To these two conceptions the needs of our present life are adding a third, — that of the school as a social institution. The demand for the emphasis of such a conception is found in practically all contemporary educational theory.

The author presents this work, not as a new discovery in education, but rather as an attempt to describe in his own way the most vital present-day conceptions of what the school has been, is, and is becoming. While he is deeply conscious of his indebtedness to his fellow-workers, he does not feel like saddling upon any the responsibility for this work. However, credit is given so freely in the text that the reader will not be left in doubt.

It is the purpose of this book to make available for teachers (actual and prospective), social workers, and citizens interested in social problems such a survey of the school as will present in a brief yet moderately comprehensive manner the

V vi Preface

social significance of its educational work, its relation to other institutions and forces, its function as a determining and controlling force, its work as a protective agency, and its service as a community center, — not indeed comprehensive enough to be dignified with the title of Educational Sociology, but holding about such a relationship to that field as Educational Psychology has to General Psychology.

Although the school is not to be regarded as sole proprietor of the field of education, the author believes that the social conception of education will be given concreteness and force by being centered in the work of that institution. It is hoped that this will be especially true in the case of those young people, who, while preparing to teach, are themselves in school; and that the essentials of Educational Sociology will be made clearer and more helpful (particularly to the young student) by finding continual application to the work of a familiar institution.

Special mention should be made of the fact that after this work was finished and partly in type, the author learned that as long ago as 1909 a book with precisely the same' title was projected by President Henry Suzzallo of the State University of Washington (then of Teachers College, Columbia University) ; and that he and his publishers, the Houghton Mifflin Company, very graciously gave their consent to the use of the title.

C. L. R.

January, 1918.

Chapter I Page

EVOLUTION OF THE IDEA OF SCHOOL AS SOCIAL

INSTITUTION .... 1

1. Origin of the School 1

The growth of culture and the widening gap between

child and adult.

The rise of a special class in control of culture. The school as a class institution.

2. Oriental Education ....... 3

The Chinese.

Education a means of keeping society in the old paths. The Jews.

The school as the handmaid of religion.

3. Greek Schools 7

Rise to the level of civic education.

The ideal of personal development.

Types of schools.

Special training for citizenship.

Modification of education by changing social conditions.

4. Roman Schools 12

Greek models.

Evolution of ideas of control and the beginnings of a

state system.

5. Schools of the Church 13

Return to priestly domination.

The great educational needs.

Kinds of schools.

Beginnings of secular schools.

6. Influence of the Renaissance ..... 17

New interests and new schools.

Education for the upper classes, not for the masses, vii viii Table of Contents

PAGE

7. Schools of the Reformation ..... 18

Fundamental nature of the movement.

Educational ideals and actual practice. Development of state control of education.

8. Influence of Naturalism . . . . . .20

Conflict between democratic and aristocratic ideas.

9. The American School 21

Colonial conceptions.

The transplanting of European ideas and practices. Conception of the school in the early national period.

Recognition of the value of education in a democracy.

Actual conditions.

The transition from private to pubHc education. Changing conditions after the Civil War.

Rapid changes in conditions of hfe.

The response of the school.

The helpful force of criticism.

10. The Conception of the School as a Social Institution ......... 30

The school as a means of control through transmission of culture.

The training of leaders.

The school as a national defense and a source of prosperity.

The school as an instrument of reform and social progress.

Chapter II

Introduction. This chapter deals with ideals and attitudes toward life as the product of the school

1. The Individual and Society ..... 35 Society a great mass of active human atoms. Its relationships a compromise between individualism

and social despotism.

The school a harmonizing force.

The school and the welfare of society as a whole.

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FAQE

2. Sociability and its_Related Virtues ... 38

Gregariousness as a foundation.

Fitness for companionship and intelligent social consciousness.

The danger of mere herding in large school systems.

Meaning of sociability.

Development of insight and good will through educa^ tion.

Pioneer conditions in America.

Increased demand for cooperation in later development.

Actual need as a basis of cooperation.

Types of cooperation : military ; democratic.

The school and ideals of cooperation.

Lack of tolerance a barrier to progress. The intolerance of good people.

Lack of tolerance in American life.

Need of sympathy without a lowering of moral standards.

The outlook.

The attention given the doctrine since Rousseau. Modification of the doctrine by later theorists. Difficulties in defining freedom and applying it in the school.

6. Responsibility : The Sense of Duty ... 52

Freedom and responsibility.

Need of an emphasis upon responsibility in a democracy.

A suggestion from Athens.

The sense of duty the essence of responsibility.

7. Initiative 53

The need of initiative determined by the nature of

society.

Neglect of initiative in formal education. Initiative more than mere effort.

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PAGE

8. Justice 55

The sum of all social ideals.

Its progressive development in the school.

CHAPTER III SOCIAL CONDITIONS WHICH CONTROL THE SCHOOL 59 Introduction. Use of the terms Society and School

1. The Influence op Home Life upon the School . 60

The home very intimately connected with the school.

The work of the school based upon home beginnings.

Importance of the attitude of the family.

Changing conditions of family life and new burdens upon the school.

Growing consciousness of the importance of the relationship between home and school : associations of parents and teachers.

2. The Relation of the Church to the School . . 64

Church members a large part of the population. Secular character of the public school. Reading of the Bible in schools.

Place of rehgion in the curriculum.

Local influence of the church upon the school. The churches and the training of the clergy. Relation of denominational control of colleges to academic freedom.

3. Influence of Philanthropic Societies upon the

School 69

Need of outside help for school progress.

The work of public education associations.

Value of philanthropic organizations to the school.

4. Influence op Business and Industrial Organiza-

tions 73

The growing importance of the economic factor in education.

Table of Contents xi

PAQE

Danger that Business will assume the place once held by the Church.

The place of the business man in educational administration.

The necessity of solving educational problems in such a way as to promote the welfare of society in general.

5. Relation of the Civil Government to the School . 77

Power of the State great, but limited.

Directive function of the State.

Nature of control : direct and indirect ; central and local.

The present tendency.

6. Influence of Tradition and Custom ... 81

Meaning of the terms.

Their influence upon the school.

Need of subjecting custom and tradition to the scrutiny of reason.

7. Influence of Public Opinion ..... 83

A powerful but intangible force.

Conflict between public opinion and expert advice. The use of public opinion to further educational ideas. Conflict of ideas, as illustrated in the state university. Need of creating public opinion favorable to public schools.

8. Influence of Social Classes 86

The presence of class lines in all kinds of societies.

Examples of class lines in the United States.

Illustrations of the influence of classes upon the schools.

The wealthy class and the workers.

Influence of the helpless or dependent.

Effect of the presence of a large foreign element.

9. Influence of Social Communication .... 91

Nature of communication.

Relation of lack of communication to static social conditions.

Illustrations of the influence of communication upon the school.

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PAGE

10. Influence op Social Ideals and Needs ... 93

Needs reflected in ideals.

The influence of changing ideals : (1) in the religious conception of life ; (2) in the civic ideal as seen in two forms ; (3) in the democratic ideal.

Progress of the democratic ideal in schools.

Chapter IV The Reaction Of The School Upon Society 99

Introduction. The school not merely a passive instrument, but a directive force

1. The Transmission of Culture ..... 100

The almost limitless spiritual inheritance of society.

Selection and transmission by the school.

Selection of material results in sifting of pupils.

The school a determining factor in social progress.

Use of material from the past and its relation to conservatism. Transfer of burden of education from other institutions to school.

2. The Advancemeijt op Learning .... 104

Widening the bounds of knowledge.

The vision of Francis Bacon ; its modern realization.

Need of emphasizing social values in the advancement

of learning.

Scope of the work of investigation.

3. Socializing the Individual 109

The wealth of material at the command of the school. Consciousness of the social function of the school. Use of a variety of materials to accomplish the social aims of education.

4. The Effect op the School upon Class Lines or Dis-

Individual and class differences the natural results of

man's heredity and environment.

The strengthening of class lines by the class school.

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PAQE

Future relationships between public and private

schools.

The influence of the dissemination of knowledge. The school and ease of shifting from class to class. The school and denominational lines.

The creation of unity of spirit.

5. The Assimilation of the Immigrant .... 119

Importance of the problem.

The difficulties produced by conflicting ideals, habits,

and similar factors.

Education of children of the immigrant the chief part of

the process.

The school an instrument of reform, especially through

enlightenment.

Warfare against poverty.

The fight against vice.

Summary 126

Chapter V

Introduction. The conservation and protection of childhood one of the most important concerns of society. Various kinds of protective work by the school. Health supervision the theme of this chapter

1. The Need of Health Supervision .... 130

Existence of a great amount of preventable disease.

Resulting loss to the school.

Special attention to health supervision.

2. Means and Methods of Protection .... 132

Health instruction.

Physical training.

Open air schools.

Provision for feeding school children.

Medical inspection.

Schoolhouse sanitation.

Summary 148 xiv Table of Contents

Chapter VI Page

THE SCHOOL AS A SELECTIVE AGENCY : RETARDA- TION, ELIMINATION, ACCELERATION . . 150

Introduction. The school an instrument of selection, as seen in retardation, elimination, and acceleration

1. Retardation 152

The amount and its variation by grades. The cost to society.

The causes.

Remedies.

A characteristic of all schools.

Variation in the amount.

The causes.

Proposed remedies.

Elimination a negative measure of success.

A less frequent phenomenon than retardation.

Effect of school organization upon the possibility of

acceleration.

Need of a more flexible system.

4. The Persistent Problem . . . . . . 167

The school hitherto a bUnd instrument of selection. The persistent problem of adaptation.

Chapter VII

Introduction. Guidance here considered as a positive process in contrast with the work of selection discussed in Chapter VI

1. Definition op Vocational Guidance . . . 169

2. The Necessity of Guidance ..... 171

The conditions in the modern industrial world. The helplessness of the immature beginner in the world's work.

Table of Contents xv

3. Reasons for Making the School a Guiding Institu-

tion 173

Its large opportunities for gaining knowledge of

children.

The existence of much of the necessary machinery. The good of the school.

Probable resulting social good.

Loss through neglect.

Need of supplementing employers' and parents' views

by those of the school.

4. Means and Methods of Guidance .... 177

Possibilities offered by the subject matter of education.

Definite organization. Examples.

Need of guiding principles.

Need of a study of (1) the individual and (2) vocations.

5. Difficulties and Dangers 183

Too much emphasis upon the industrial.

Substitution of mere job-finding for real guidance. Too early choice of vocation.

Too great confidence in meager knowledge. Mechanical rather than personal treatment of young people.

6. The Problems 185

The proper time for guidance.

Harmonizing conflicting interests.

Overcoming social pressure.

Chapter VIII Moral Education . . .191

1. Nature and Purpose of Control .... 191 Selection and guidance as forms of control inferior to

character-formation.

Kinds of control : physical and educational.

xvi Table of Contents

The instinctive basis of control. Active and passive

phases.

Harmony of the active and passive elements.

2. Historical Types of Control through Education 196

The Jews.

The Greeks.

The medieval church.

The weakness of education in its fight against instinct.

3. Control in a Democracy : Moral Education . 199

Meaning of democracy.

Forces of control in a democracy moral rather than

physical.

Meaning of moral education.

Dependence of society upon institutions for control

through moral education.

4. The School as an Agency of Moral Education . 202

Tendency of the school toward the intellectual and the

formal.

PossibiUty of effective moral training. Need of an actual moral environment.

Value of school spirit.

Situations of moral significance to be provided through

school.

Lack of formal courses in ethics no cause for alarm.

5. The Moral Significance of the Course of Study 206

Nature of the course of study.

Varying moral values of the subjects of study. The dilemma of ethical instruction.

Need of accurate knowledge of values and results. The curriculum not the most important factor in forming character.

Need of types of material to fit the needs of all pupils.

6. The Relation of Methods and Discipline to Moral

Training . . . . J . . . 212 Mere mastery of content not sufficient. Need of special effort to secure maximal transfer of

training.

Table of Contents xvii

PAOB

School discipliae positive, not merely negative and repressive.

Value of self-government as seen in the school republic or city.

Special organization not necessary.

The double value of school discipline : (1) special trainiQg; (2) development of general ideas and attitudes.

7. Importance of the Teacher ..... 217 The chief factor in overcoming the tendency toward

artificiality.

A som"ce of moral guidance and inspiration. The chief factor in making content and method vital.

Chapter IX

Introduction. The school often a center although not the organizing force

1. The Need op Community Centers .... 222

Community spirit a definite need.

Need of a central force to create stronger social spirit.

In the city : much isolation ; the problem of leisure ;

class lines ;. the education of adults. In the country : peculiar problems of rural life.

2. Obstacles to the Development of Community

Centers 227

Class barriers.

Intolerance.

Human inertia.

Lack of leadership.

Isolation.

3. The Question of Making the School a Community

Center 228

The possibility suggested by the nature of the school. The church not adequate as a community center.

xviii Table of Contents

PAGE

Reasons for making the school such a center : the present existence of much of the necessary equipment ; the probability of increased interest in the school ; education the one matter in which all have a vital interest.

4. Growth op the Community Center Movement . 231

Expansion of the work : education of adults ; public lectures ; establishment of recreation centers ; evolution of the social center.

The growth of appropriate legislation.

The outlook.

5. The Administration op Extension Activities . . 242

Four stages : (1) purely voluntary effort ; (2) cooperation between school board and citizens ; (3) control through some municipal body other than board of education ; (4) entire control by school authorities.

The importance of the teacher.

Need of inspiring the community to do something for itself.

6. The Equipment op the Community Center . . 246

Traditional school equipment not sufficient.

Facilities needed for recreation, for public meetings, for clubs, etc.

Special need of equipment of rural school for social work.

The teacher's cottage idea.

Chapter X

Introduction. Need of organizing schools to meet present needs, regardless of tradition

1. Kinds of Schools 254

The school originally a mere transmitter of culture.

Table of Contents xix

P>QB

Need of different kinds of schools to meet varying

needs.

The vocational school as an example of attempted

adjustment.

2. General Character of American School Organiza-

State systems instead of a national system. General resemblance among the states.

3. Problems of State Educational Organization . 257

State versus local control.

The advantages of centralization.

The disadvantages.

The proper relationship between state and local functions.

4. The Problems of Local Organization . . . 266

Duty of cooperating with the central organization.

Securing harmony between laymen and professional workers.

Difficulty of securing officials of the right caliber.

The problem of homogeneity of population in local divisions.

The peculiar difficulties of the rural school. Consolidation.

5. Organization of the School ..... 272

The military tradition in school organization.

Imitation of pohtical organization.

The plan of freedom and informal cooperation.

6. Recent Experiments in Organization . . . 276

The Junior High School.

Conditions leading to its rise.

Definition of the term.

Social significance of the institution. The Gary Plan.

Description.

Its social significance.

XX Table of Contents

Chapter XI Page

Meaning of the term, private school

1. Reasons for the Existence op Private Schools . 288

Provision of a kind of education which the State does

not give.

The attitude of the Roman Catholic Church. Opportunity of trying new ideas in private schools.

2. Extent op Private Education in the United States 290

Range of work of private schools.

Statistics of denominational schools.

Growth of church schools in relation to church population.

3. Classes op People Reached 293

Special classes of people served.

4. Scope op the Work Done 294

Content similar to that of public schools, with the exception of religion.

5. The Value of Private Schools .... 295

Rehef of public schools from part of burden of education.

The conduct of kinds of work difficult or impossible in the pubUc school.

6. Dangers of Private Education .... 298

The cultivation of snobbishness.

Commercialism.

Sectarianism.

Inferior work.

7. State Supervision op Private Schools . . . 301

The problem of administration left in the transition

from church to state control.

American practice a form of benevolent neutrality. Conditions in other countries.

Table of Contents xxi

Chapter XII Paqb

THE COURSE OF STUDY: GENERAL CONSIDERA- TIONS 308

1. The Nature and Origin of Subject Matter . . 308

Origin in experience and growth through need.

Social nature of subject matter.

Tendency to reproduce the past, not to anticipate the

future.

The course of study a compromise between tradition

and present needs.

2. The Function of the Course of Study . . 312

The provision of material through which to realize the

aims of education.

The creation of a social environment.

Value as an instrument which the State can use to

adjust itself to changing conditions.

3. Principles Underlying Selection of Subject Matter 325

The middle ground of reason between extreme conservatism and extreme radicalism.

The disciplinary conception as a basis of selection.

The culture epoch theory.

The principles of selection based upon a harmonization of conflicting ideas.

Social needs versus individual capacities.

Past culture versus present social activities.

Broad versus narrow content.

Habit versus judgment and ideals.

Relative values.

Chapter XIII The Course Of Study : The Parts . 347

1. Religion 347

A subject of utmost importance in the evolution of the

school.

Changes since the Reformation.

The question of religion in the public school.

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PAGE

2. The Litebary Element 353

The literary tradition of the school in contrast with the

practical needs of life.

The function of literature.

The selection of material.

3. The Formal Phases op Language .... 357

Language a social product ; school emphasis upon

other ideas.

Selection of material.

Present social conditions versus tradition.

4. History and Civics 359

A broadly social (rather than a political) conception.

The function of history.

The actual demand for historical knowledge.

The elimination of certain types of material from school

histories.

Current newspapers and magazines a means of guidance

in selection.

5. Mathematics 365

Two types of school mathematics : disciplinary and

practical.

Need of mathematical treatment of many matters of

social concern.

Modification of content through social pressure.

6. Geography and Natural Science .... 368

Purely scientific treatment inadequate in elementary and high schools.

The social function of geography and natural science.

Modification of geography through social interpretation.

The social point of view necessary in the selection of material.

7. Vocational Subjects 372

The use of terms.

The breakdown of apprenticeship and the effects upon

the school.

Early efforts in the field of vocational training. Present attempts to vocationalize the schools. Summary 380

Table of Contents xxiii

Chapter XIV Paob

1. The Nature of Method 383

Basis in the educational ideal, the character of the

learner, and the nature of subject matter. Historical development of method.

2. Factors Determining Method 387

The effect of differences in various kinds of material.

Modification of subject matter as a result of socialization.

The psychological factor in method.

The educational aim as a factor.

The nature of society as a determining force.

The influence of tradition.

3. Social Standards for Judging Method , . . 396

Difficulty of formulating social standards.

The customary standard : amount of reproducible

knowledge.

The development of ideals as a standard. The cultivation of a social spirit.

Freedom, originality, and initiative.

Development of the sense of responsibility. The desire for progress.

The social interpretation of the curriculum. Application of social standards.

4. Types of Method ....... 409

The point of view here social, rather than psychological. The method of individual instruction. The Batavia

System.

The Socratic Method.

Basis of common interest, cooperative effort, and freedom.

The socialized recitation.

An example of the use of the method in a history lesson. Dramatization.

Appeal to social motives.

Its use in various fields.

xxiv Table of Contents