Training in night movements, based on actual experiences in war

Front matter

Class

Book

Gop)Tight}l?.

Contents

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I. Psychological action at Nighttime 15

Night and morbid watchfulness, p. 15; night and illusions,, p. 16; at night, suggestion is easy, p. 16; night brings out the weak points of the individual, p. 17.

I. Psychological Action At Nighttime

From an educational standpoint, a thorough knowledge of psychological processes at night is a most important matter, because the weightiest considerations in night movements are mental ones. **iTherefore, I will explain this matter at the very beginning.

Having seen a thing with my own eyes, I can form my judgment concerning it; by knowing that there is no danger to my own body, I will be calm. On account of my being calm, there will be no uncertainty; on account of there being no uncertainty, all things, necessarily, will be clear. In order that there may be that clearness, a broad field of view and a clear understanding of facts are necessary. However, at nighttime, a person is not able to see his surroundings; accordingly it is only natural that there should be uncertainty. One cannot know when there will be danger in the darkness just a little ways ahead. In such cases there is a feeling of apprehension, of doubt and uncertainty, and finally there is extremely cautious watchfulness and fear. In short, at nighttime, the mind is agitated and excited. '

Night and Morbid Watchfulness. — Attention is the term applied to a condition of ajffairs when the consciousness is concentrated on certain substances or certain ideas. At night, as the field of view is very limited, great attention must be paid to the multitude of surrounding objects; if this is not done, one will quickly fall into danger. In the presence of the enemy, how much more must the amount of watchfulness, on account of its relation to life and death, give rise to the greatest of care — and one becomes unable to distinguish between fact and fancy. As a result of too much care and concentration, what has hitherto been imagination almost ceases to be such, and approaches reality. The imagination is so vivid that unreal things seem real.

Night and Illusions. — At night, illusion is easy; there are various kinds of such illusions, as:

1. Confusion which arises from an error of the senses.

2. An illusion which forms a mistaken impression through not having made a proper impression on the senses.

3. An illusion arising entirely from confusion of mind.

At nighttime, illusions very often arise. For example, white clothes hanging on willow trees, or white flags in a cemetery, become ghosts; an old rope in the grass seems a snake; tall pillars, or bundles of Manchurian millet, an enemy, etc.

In the presence of the enemy, such illusions are dangerous.

' At Night, Suggestion is Easy. — Whenever the mind is agitated, the nerves also become keen. Insignificant causes, also, have the power to suggest things quickly. These suggestions are of various kinds— imitative, inductive, synchronic, etc. On account of such suggestions, confusion, mistakes, false reports, etc., in one detachment, will extend quickly to the entire body. On this account there are not a few examples where a single soldier at nighttime, who fancied that he saw an enemy, quickly gave the whole force the impression that there was, in reality, an enemy present. Again, if one person unexpectedly lays down, or halts, those accompanying him, not understanding the reason for his action, in their uncertainty, do the same. Did not such a thingc ause the rout of the Heishi clan at Fushigawa? At first, probably hearing the noise of a flying bird and thinking it was the enemy, the movement or cry of a single man extended to the whole army. During the Japanese-Russian War, a detachment of the Russian army in a seacoast fortification was thrown into "disorder on account of one or two men in front crying out that there was a night attack, thereby causing the whole force to fall into disorder.

Night Brings out the Weak Points of the Individual. — ■ A state of uncertainty at night gives rise to the idea of danger ; from this there develops a state of fear. Mankind, in crowds, has an excessive mental action. That is, a crowd is conscious of vast power; hence, certain movements, though difficult for the individual, will be bravely carried out by several men together. While one man is fearful and uncertain, a number of men together, will enter into the movement almost without consideration. Therefore, at night, although one man, alone, will be afraid, several together will show no indecision whatever. This fact should' be borne in mind in all night movements.

In the matter of mental phenomena, the man who has weak points in the daytime will be spurred on by vanity, love of fame, or perhaps by a self-denying spirit; but when night comes, on account of the lack or the slackness of supervision of his officers and comrades, the individual weakness will quickly show. It is not a good thing to leave the individual without supervision at night, neither is it a good thing to place him in such circumstances as will bring out these weaknesses.

n.

IMPORTANT MEASURES WHICH CORRECT UNFAVORABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL ACTION AT NIGHT.

Although nighttime has the disadvantages mentioned above, there will be times when it will be alsolutely necessary to employ soldiers individually. It is, therefore, necessary to train them so that the evils due to fits of characteristic weaknesses will never arise.

At Night, Especially, Strict Discipline is Necessary. — Nighttime is the touchstone which determines the value of an army. As supervision is difficult, strict discipline ' is necessary. The greatest influence of discipline is to repress the weaknesses which grow out of individuality, and to prevent the expression of those weaknesses. An army which does not have good discipline at night, will completely fall to pieces. If the individual is allowed to follow his own desires, an army is ruined. Therefore, successful night operations demai;d the strictest discipline; it is such discipline that spurs night operations to success.

A High Morale and a Firm Offensive Spirit. — Mental agitation depends upon the state of morale. If the morale be high, there will be no such agitation; therefore, the evils, i. e., the mental phenomena previously described, will not arise. In general, a negative mind always acts unfavorably; therefore, in the case of individuals whose morale is low and who are negative in principle, the following psychological action will arise :

1. A morbid watchfulness.

2. Illusions.

3. Suggestions.

4. Weak points of individual character.

Therefore, a high morale is necessarily required to successfully overcome such weaknesses. As a matter of fact, a high morale is the foundation of successful night operations. A person with a high morale does not stand, by passively, but acts, perhaps unconsciously, •in a positive manner.

Silence in Night Movements.— Silence causes an agitated mind to become cool; on the contrary, disorder causes more confusion. Although, at times, it is both a material and abstract advantage to powerfully excite a man in order to drive him toward a certain objective, the importance of maintaining silence at night, must not be lost sight of. There are, naturally, two reasons for this, viz:

1. In order not to be discovered by the enemy.

2. In order to avoid falling into confusion, yourself.

At night, as it is impossible to discriminate by sight, judgment must be formed from the sounds heard. However, in what way will an ordinary sound which arises in one detachment, be transmitted to others, especially in the case of those detachments who hear this disquieting sound and already believe themselves in danger?

Therefore, at night, in order not to be discovered by the enemy, as well as to prevent falling into disorder, yourself, it is absolutely necessary to remain quiet.

Night and Massed Formation. — On account of its large numbers, great things can be accomplished with a massed force; for the self-consciousness of great strength causes great energy. At night, a large massed force destroys those individual characteristics, the various evils of which I have aready clearly explained. On account of the difficulty of leadership, communication and contact, confusion and separation are easy. From a psychological standpoint, as well, it is advantageous to avoid the distribution of columns, and to use the close columns instead. A brave, determined advance is of special importance in night movements.

Night Movements and Self -confidence. -^Seli-confidence is the foundation of bravery ; it is the requisite of a high morale. If one wishes to obtain self-confidence, there must be no indecision; in order that there may be no indecision, there must be no obscurity. Therefore it follows that conditions should be clearly understood, and that we become rich in experience. That is the reason why thoroughness of reconnaissance, observation, and training are particularly necessary for night movements. If the state of the enemy as well as the terrain be well known, and if the troops be well trained in night movements, there will be no indecision, and the movements can be carried out by methods and means which may be deemed best. A thing carried out in the belief that success is certain, will be carried out in a recklessly brave manner; that is the reason for the necessity of self-confidence at night.

Night Movements and Self-possession. — At night, one cannot tell at what distance or at what time there will be personal danger. If the enemy be heard, the danger seems the same whether he be a hundred, or only ten paces away. Therefore, a person of negative spirit feels the enemy pressing upon him, even though in reality, he is far away; and an imaginary enemy becomes the same as a real one. Therefore, in order not to make rash and disorderly movements, causes must be judged cooly.

III. How To Dress

The Requirements of Dress. — Dress must conform to the following requirements :

1. Speed.

2. Propriety.

3. Reliability.

To carry out these requirements, training is necessary. It is a bad thing to attach too great weight to speed at first, and make^light of propriety and reliability. Therefore, at first, the following requirements must be observed :

1. Do not demand useless rapidity, but rather coolness.

2. Proper arrangement.

3. As far as possible, quietness should be preserved. The necessary things should be taken from their fixed places only when about to be put on, so as to avoid confusion.

Coolness. — More haste, less speed. If one be confused, he will mistake the proper order or forget important things, and sometimes it will be necessary to change what has already been put on.

Order. — Order is the shortest road, and if followed, there will be nothing forgotten. However hurried one may be, it is important not to curtail or change the order; therefore, it is necessary to plan carefully, the most suitable order of procedure — a practical impossibility for one without experience. For these reasons, it is a good thing to fix a suitable order of procedure, and carry it out strictly.

Quietness.— At night, quietness is very necessary, especially in the proximity of the enemy, Therefore, it is important, in time of peace, to demand quietness, and to carry out such a training that there will be no talking or noise. If the soldier has had this training, it is an easy thing to remain quiet. If he has not, it is a very difficult matter. While a sudden demand for quiet is no hardship upon persons accustomed to it, it is most irksome to those who are not so accustomed to it.

Order of Dressing. — In order that dressing may progress smoothly, a proper order is necessary. In this order, it is important that mind and hand follow natural movements. The following example of correct procedure is from my own experience :

1 . Clothing, shoes and leggins will be worn and put on in the following order: socks, trousers, leggins, blouse, cap.

2. Hang haversack and water bottle over the shoulder.

3. Place the required articles in the knapsack, roll the overcoat; attach tools, spare shoes, and mess tin to the knapsack, and put it on.

4. Take the rifle in the hand (at this time, take off the muzzle cover and place it in its prescribed place).

Although there are times when this order will not be adhered to, and it will be necessary to arrange the clothing so as to take rifle and ammunition fl.-st, the habit of handling these articles in their proper order in time of peace is most necessary.

Peace Time Preparations — Preparedness. — During peace time, weapons, clothing and equipment are natura ly arranged in a prescribed place in barracks. Each article should be so arranged that the soldier will put his hand on it naturally, even in the darkness, or in emergencies. On account of the articles being in a fixed place, the Soldier often does not realize the advantage of being able to grasp them readily. If the difficulty of searching for obscure articles in the dark be considered, one must realize the great advantage of being able to reach them naturally and easily. Accordingly, while resting on the march, in camp, billet, or bivouac, articles will always be arranged in an orderly manner, so that they may be seized quickly and certainly.

IV. Training And Dressing

Occasions. — This training should be carried out at the same time as the ordinary day training. There are two opportunities for this:

1. At the time of changing the daytime course of training.

2. It can be carried out especially as a drill in dressing.

In the first instance, have the men dress in a fixed place, with each article in a special place. It is important to employ the time so as not to encroach upon time allotted to other drills.

Orderly Methods. — In the second instance, the following points are important:

1. A comprehension of the method of dressing. While explaining this in barracks, or in a fixed position, give a signal by a whistle, and say : ' ' Now put on such and such a thing." While assistants instruct and inspect the men, teach them the basic principles of what they are doing.

2. Make them dress, unexpectedly, in daytime.

3. Explain the method of dressing at night.

4. Make them dress, unexpectedly, at night.

By such method of training, the objective may be attained. At this time, without fail, coolness, order and quiet must be maintained. At first, pay no attention to the time consumed; after a little while, demand more speed, and finally have the movement executed at the rate desired.

Number of Times Practiced. — Whenever an army is accustomed to a certain manner of dressing in its daily life, the dressing is not a difficult matter. On that account, time is not specially allotted for such training, but practice will be had whenever there is a good opportunity. However, the following important principles must not be forgotten :

1. To guard against negligence.

2. To review the methods of dressing.

For this reason, it should be practiced every month or so, and whenever the men become careless about it.

V. Night And Vision

Importance of Cultivating the Vision at Night. — At night, one is able to see according to the degree of darkness. The amount of vision also differs naturally and it is important to know the amount under various circumstances. Especially is this true under circumstances where the judgment cannot be formed by hearing, i. e., in rainy weather, or under other noisy conditions, where vision, though insufficient, is superior to hearing. Therefore, the training of the eye at night it a most important matter, as, to a certain degree, it can be strengthened "by experience and practice. In the Japanese- Russian War, the judgment by sight of soldiers accustomed to the terrain and to night movements, was surprisingly good, and was entirely due to experience.

Vision at Night Can be Improved by Training. — One accustomed to night movements, compared to one not so accustomed, is much more able to form correct judgments by sight'; for experience sharpens the nerves and increases the faculty of attention. From indications, from methods of comparison, together with other assisting factors, one's judgment soon becomes accurate.

Night Vision — Detecting and Losing Sight of. — Vision at night differs in degree, also, according to the concentration of attention; in this connection, the following principles are from my own experience :

1. When you follow with your eyes a thing once discovered, you will be able to see it for a long distance.

2. The distance at which you first discover an object, is less than the distance where you lose sight of it. Therefore, at night, when you lose sight of an object you have once discovered, it is difficult to find it a second time. When you follow it with your eye vision is easy, and the distance at which the object is visible becomes much greater, especially if there are supplementary indications. In such a case a thing liable to be unnoticed, will be seen by the observer.

Night Vision and Objects, and the Color of Surrounding Objects. The color of the dress has great bearing on vision; and I have learned the following facts from my own observation:

1 . On a dark night a white coat can be seen farther than a black one.

2. When there is moonlight, often a black coat can be seen farther than a white one.

3. In any case, a light brown or mouse color can be seen a long distance.

4. A black color against a black background is more difficult to see than white; the latter against white surroundings is more difficult than black.

From these facts, the importance of bearing in mind the color of surrounding objects when fixing the kind of dress, or determining one's movements, is apparent.

Night Vision and Relations of Light and Shadow. — • Night vision differs greatly accord rig to one's position relative to a luminous body and shadow :

1. When a luminous ]:»ody such as the moon, is faced, vision is decreased.

2. When the light is behind, vision is increased.

~ 3. When a luminous body is overhead, the mean of increase and decrease is the same.

4. Even though facing the light, if it does not strike the eyes d rectly, it injures vision but little.

5. One can see when looking from darkness into light, but not when looking from light into darkness.

6. While holding the light yourself, only your own surroundings can be seen.

7. When a light is behind an object, the latter's outlines are clearly visible.

8 A black object or a moving object covered by shadow, is difficult to see.

9. Small objects seem far away, and large ones seem near,

10. Bright objects appear near, and obscure ones, far away.

The above facts teach one that, when covered by dark objects, or when moving in the shadow, to look at the bright side from the dark as much as possible, and not have the light directly in front.

Relation of the Seasons to Night Vision. —

1. In level, open country, the field of view is extensive.

2. In close country, the opposite is true.

According! 3^ from late in the autumn until the beginning of spring, on account of the grass having withered and the leaves fallen the field of view is extensive. From late in the spring until early autumn on accoimt of the luxuriant grass and trees, the field of view is restricted. During the Manchurian winter (in level country), the field of view is greater than in Japan. In mountainous localities, trees are few, compared to Japan, and the field of view is correspondingly greater.

Night Vision and Our Own Posture. — In looking at objects which have ground objects in their rear, a standing posture is advisable; without such objects in rear, a low posture is best. Therefore, to avoid being seen, take a low posture; if moving, keep physical objects in your rear. Even though such objects be distant, they will be of great assistance.

Night Vision and Field Glasses. — Whenever there is light at night from moon or stars, and at twilight and dawn, field glasses will double the power of vision. However, as the glasses narrow the field of view, it is dangerous to depend upon them, except to confirm a thing already seen, or when the locality in which the object to be seen, will appear and move, is fixed.

VI. Method Of Training Night Vision

General Principles. — In this training, have the men learn thoroughly the preceding principles. After they have become somewhat experienced, :teach them the subject of relative vision under all kinds of circumstances. This will give them a suitable standard of judgment; and it is most necessary that the soldier have various kinds of experiences, so that he may learn how to act when alone.

Important Points of Training. —

1. The execution of movements at night, without reference to the amount of light. In this case, the following training is suggested for the vision:

(a) A single soldier moving quietly, first toward the soldier under instruction and second away from him. The reason for the quiet movement is to prevent any assistance from sound, thus training the soldier in relative vision.

(b) A single moving soldier allowmg some noise, such as the noise of the bayonet scabbard, water in the canteen, footsteps, etc., first toward the man under instruction, and second away from him.

(c) A single soldier in different co.ored clothing, both toward and away from the man under instruction.

(d) After a little while, increase the number of soldiers and have them move under the following conditions: 1. Quietly; 2. Under ordinary conditions; 3. With different colored clothing; Toward the one under instruction (discovery), and away from him (losing sight of).

(e) With a squad under the same condit ons as paragraph (d).

2. Taking the light nto consideration.

(a) With the light (moon, lantern, etc.), above and in the rear.

(6) With the light at a high place in the front.

(c) With the light in rear of the object to be seen.

(ci) When the object to be seen bears the light.

(e) When the man under instruction bears the light.

(0 When the object to be seen is on the sky-line, and when not.

(g) Movements in the shadow.

(/?.) The relation between one hidden by an object and one covered by a shadow.

The above practice should be carried out, first, quietly; second, under ordinary conditions; third, with different colored uniforms.

Method of Training. — When the number of soldiers under instruction is small, one instructor supervises the instruction in one squad; if the number be large, there will be assistant instructors in charge of each squad. The instruction of all squads will be carried out at the same time, taking care that they be so placed so as not to interfere with each other.

•^QAiady

For example, place a squad at A. From this squad send one man (later several men) in the direction B. When he is about to disappear from view, halt him and estimate the distance. Again, based on these principles, send one man (later, several) outside the field of view, in the direction B, with instructions to advance toward A. When he enters the field o'f view, halt him and estimate the distance.

Try these experiments just mentioned in the following cases and make each man judge distance, etc., for himself, first, quietly; second, under ordinary conditons (singly, several men, squad) ; third, with different colored uniforms.

Experiments. — When this kind of training is finished cultivate the understanding and power of judgment by movements at will over various kinds of terrain and under varying conditions of weather, darkness, etc. Teach them to utilize trees, light, terrain, etc., the instructors correcting and criticising the movements. For example, form the men into a squad, and have other soldiers, from a considerable distance outside the limit of vision, move toward the squad, making use of light, terrain, shadows, etc., as already explained. The squad will watch and criticise the movements, the instructor also adding his criticism. Select suitable occasions for teaching the relations of terrain, natural objects, weather, luminous bodies, etc.

32 VII.

HEARING AT NIGHT.

At night, on account of the difficulty of vision, the ears must be trained Ud listen attentively, and with judgment; the military objective must be attained b'y a combination of sight and hearing, even when you cannot approach an object close enough to see it. In many cases, the terrain and the state of the enemy will enable you to accomplish your object by hearing. Again, in many cases, hearing enables one to judge of the proximity of the enemy, and of his movements. Therefore the scope of practical use of hearing at night is very extensive; and it is important that the hearing be well trained so that one may be able to guess all indications coming from sounds, and at the same time so plan his own movements so as not to furnish the enemy with such indications. On that account, it is necessary to have a criterion by which indications may be judged, and a self-consciousness by which one can regulate his own movements.

The Character of the Ground and Sounds. — •

1. If the ground be hard, the echo is loud.

2. If the ground be soft, there is but little echo. That is, if the ground be hard, the noise is sharp; if

soft, it is dull.

Kinds of Covering Substances and Sound. — Noise varies according to the kind of covering substance; therefore it is very necessary to know the relative amount of sound when walking over various kinds of ground.

The Size of a Detachment and the Relative Weight of Materials'. — If a detachment be large, it causes a corresponding amount of noise, and can be heard at a distance; if it be small, the noise is small. If the materials be heav}^ the noise carries a great distance, and if they be light, the contrary is true. These relations are coexistent with those of the character of the ground.

Weather. —

1. Rain or snow.

(a) When rain is falling there are great differences in hearing, depending upon the degree of rain.

(b) When snow is falling, the amount of obstruction to noise, compared to rain, is small. When passing over snow, it varies according to the degree of freezing.

2. Wind.

(a) When there is no wind, conditions are excellent for hearing, as sound is not at all obstructed.

{b) When the wind is blowing, conditions are favorable for hearing sounds which occur in the direction from which the wind is blowing, and noises can be heard at a long distance. Opposite conditions produce exactly opposite results.

(c) Wind blowing in one's ears is disadvantageous as the noise interferes with hearing.

3. Time of night.

At dead of night, surrounding noises can be heard better than at twilight or dawn.

4. Relation of physical objects.

In level open country, which has no trees, buildings, etc., to interfere with the transmission of sound, noises travel far.

5. Relation of seasons.

In the winter, not only is the ground frozen, but the leaves of plants, trees, etc., are fallen, the grass is withered and dead, and the crops cut and gathered; therefore, sounds travel especially far.

VIII. Training In Hearing At Night

Important Points to be Considered. — In the following training, have the men understand clearly the relations of the manner of walking, numbers and clothing, to the sound produced; then extend the training as follows :

1. The march of infantry.

(a) A quiet advance.

(b) Quick time not in step (single soldier, several men, squad with and without arms, in different kinds of weather and over different kinds of ground).

(c) Quick time in step, under same conditions as (b) .

(d) Double time.

2. March of cavalry.

This should be carried out whenever there is a good opportunity, conformable to the above principles.

3. March of artillery.

To be carried out as in_(l).

4. The noise of intrenching. (a) The noise of digging with a pick. (6) The noise of driving a shovel strongly into the ground.

(c) The noise of pushing a spade into various kinds of ground.

{d) The noise of a squad carrying on the work freely.

Methods. — The apportionment of squads according to the number of men, is the same as previously described.

For example, have the neces- A A A X "R ^^^y number of men ad-

vance from the squad at A, in the direction of B. Having faced the squad at A to the rear,, have them listen to the noise of intrenching at B ; when they can no longer ' , ""^ ^ hear it, halt the squad at B,

and estimate the distance.

Again, have a squad at B, approach the squad at A; when the latter can hear the noise, have them estimate the distance. This training should be carried out with a varying number of men, and under varying conditions of ground and weather. By such means, each man, individually, will learn the proper pace and manner of advance ; the noise of working, also, will teach them how to use their tools with a minimum of noise. The following exercises, also, are important: The intrenching of a squad (of so many men) at what distance can it be heard, (a) in quiet weather, (b) when the wind is favorable, (c) when wind is unfavorable, etc.

Inferences to he Drawn from Sound. — To state it briefly, one who is accustomed to noticing sounds at night, is able to form his judgment of the causes by using the various inferences that ma}^ be drawn from such sounds. For this reason, such basic instruction is very necessary for soldiers; this instruction, also, will give them a basis for the guidance of their own movements. For this purpose, it is important to take advantage of every opportunity for instruction in comparing the causes which give rise to the. sounds, to the sounds themselves, as for example, the march of a detachment, cavalry, wagons, etc. When well trained in this, the soldier will be able to guess the direction of march, the approximate position with reference to himself, distance, etc. If no good opportunities for such training present themselves, while moving on the many roads, or in their vicinity, listen to all the sounds which arise on the road and practice estimating their causes, direction, distance, etc.