Teaching in rural schools

Front matter

Book ^'^

Gopyright N°

CDEmiGHT DEPOSm

Preface

This book is an outgrowth of the experience of years spent in teaching in rural schools and of other years given to the preparation of teachers. Many excellent manuals have been written for teachers in well-graded schools of cities and towns. Some of these manuals give a few paragraphs to the problems of rural teachers. Not until quite recently have these teachers been recognized by special books devoted to their peculiar field. This manual has not only kept the rural teacher foremost in thought, but throughout its pages the teacher of the small ungraded or partially graded rural school has been kept constantly in mind. The treatment aims to accomplish several things, among which are the follbwing: —

1. To bring to attention the needs of rural life, the broadening vision of rural life, and the possible contributions of the rural school to this life.

2. To unfold in a clear and helpful way some introductory guiding principles of education.

3. To start any rural teacher on the road of the best in modern methods in teaching and in managing.

4. To direct such a teacher to the most helpful aids in educational literature in connection with the various phases of theory and practice.

If the book succeeds in these aims, it will justify itself as an introductory study for all rural teachers who wish to become professional craftsmen.

Owing to necessary limitations of space, some topics have been treated briefly, others omitted. Doubtless errors of

X PREFACE

omission and of commission may readily be pointed out. But with sympathy and good will this volume goes forth on its mission.

T. J. W.

CHAPTER I. Introduction S

Early American schools — Changing home conditions — Development of the rural-life problem — The enrichment of rural life — The rural school amid the change — The reorganization and redirection of the rural school.

Questions for discussion — Some good books for teachers.

CHAPTER n. The Rubal School .9

I. Its Function and Scope in General.

The school a specialized institution — Education for complete living — Rare opportunity of rural schools — Broadening view of the rural school.

II. Rural Life Needs.

The bodily life — The intellectual life — The aesthetic life — The industrial life — The social life — The moral and religious life — Conclusion.

HI. Types op Rural Schools.

The consolidated school — Progress of consolidation — The one-teacher school — Standard schools — The Missouri score card.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER III. The Teacher 25 The Rural-School Teacher

I. Natural Equipment.

Teaching Personality — Important teacher-qualities: Good health, well preserved — Pleasing personality — Imagination — Appreciation of rural life — Character — Other quahties.

II. Preparation.

Scholastic preparation — Professional preparation — Efficiency maintained — The teacher in service — Teachers' salaries.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV. Organization and Management

I. The School Plant.

The school grounds — The schoolhouse — Heating and ventilation — The water supply — Blackboards — School desks — Other equipment.

II. Organizing the Plant.

Before the opening day — Assistance of pupils — Preliminary pupil organization — Classifying and seating.

III. Organizing the Work of the School.

The course of study — Possible reorganizations of the school — Alternation of classes — A suggestive program for a rural school of eight grades and one teacher — Using older pupils as teacher-assistants.

IV. Organizing Recreation.

The value of play — • Supervision of play — Grouping of pupils in play periods — Books and play apparatus — Beginnings in play organization.

V. Organizing the Community.

School events — Special-day programs — Other suggestions for community effort — Some rural-community characteristics.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER V. General Principles of Teaching . . 65 I. The Child

I. Periods of Growth and Development.

Infancy and early childhood — Childhood — Characteristics of this early period — Youth, or adolescence — Adolescent characteristics — The problem of adaptation — Chronological and physiological age — Individual differences — Average weight and height.

II. The Child's Original Capital.

Instincts and general innate tendencies — The development of instincts — Individual variations.

III. Interests.

Forcing and arrested development — Interests awakened by nature — Interests centering in man — Dr. Dewey's classification — How to develop interest — Interest and drill.

CONTENTS xiii

IV. Apperception.

Definition and illustrations — Some applications for teachers.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER VI. General Principles of Teaching . . 86

II. The Recitation.

Lessons and recitations — How to handle recitations in rural schools — Varieties of recitation work — The inductive-deductive aim — Influence of Pestalozzi and Herbart — The steps of a recitation — ■ Applications of the process to school work — Limitations of the process — The testing aim — The drilling aim — The reviewing aim — The appreciation aim

— The study aim — • Desk work — Suggestions for primary-grade desk work — Questioning — Orderly thinking and talking — Plans of lessons.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER Vn. Discipline ......... 105

I. General Purpose II. More Specific Purposes.

III. General Methods in Discipline.

The teacher as monarch — The dominating personality — Discipline through interest — Discipline through self-interest

— Discipline through awakening higher ambitions.

IV. Disciplinary Measures.

1. Preventive measures.

Good organization and instruction — Repression vs. \ expression.

2. Constructive measures.

Forming good habits — Creating a wholesome school spirit or atmosphere — Reconstructing a school community — Use of incentives — • Moral training — Methods in moral instruction — Moral forces of importance.

3. Corrective measures.

Some punishment at times necessary — Guiding principles in punishment — Some school faults, and how to ! handle them — A school-conduct platform — Corporal punishment — Improper and proper punishments.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

xiv CONTENTS

Part II Teaching The Elementary-school Subjects

CHAPTER Vin. Introductory 135

Child needs and cycles — Fundamental studies of the first six years — The upper grades — What the second part will include.

CHAPTER IX. Reading and Literature . . . .137

Importance of reading — The alphabetic method — The word method — The sentence method — The phonic method — Supplemental reading needed.

First Lessons.

Objective work — Child interests — Use script — Drill cards — Phonics — Ear drills — Order of teaching the letters and sounds — Diacritical marks — Other first-grade suggestions.

Second Grade.

Lengthening thought-getting and giving — Stories: dramatic work — Building words: voice training.

Third Grade.

Emphasis on silent reading.

Upper Grades.

Oral Reading.

Importance of reading aloud — Training in thought-getting — Reading to the children — Selections for memorizing. The School Library.

A good rural-school library — Keeping up the library. Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER X. The English Language . . . ^' . 163

I. Elementary Language Lessons.

Qualities to be cultivated — Importance of language for school work — First steps — Formal lessons — Written forms.

1. Written work in primary grades.

First year — Second year — Third year.

2. Written work in upper grades; composition work.

Sequence — Types of compositions — Making compositions real — Correcting compositions — Books for teachers.

CONTENTS XV

II. Story-Telling.

Some values — Kinds of stories — Telling the stories — Books for teachers.

III. Picture Lessons.

School use of pictures — Pictures for language lessons — ' Kinds of picture lessons — Suggestions of methods — Books for teachers.

IV. Grammar.

Some values — Where to be taught — Inductive-deductive method — Diagramming.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XI. Spelling 187

Two important tool subjects — Some faults in teaching spelling — Needed reforms — Selection of words — Small number of words needed — The "one hundred spelling demons" — Local vocabularies and spelling needs — Methods of study — Better methods in teaching spelling — Dictionary work — Word study and spelling rules — Written and oral spelHng — Simplified spelling.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XII. Penmanship . . ... . .199

Qualities of good penmanship — Systems of penmanship — Some teaching faults — Points on which there is general agreement.

Some method suggestions.

Pen and pencil — Position, penholding, and movement — • Form and movement — • Other suggestions — Stimulus of a writing scale — Standards which ought to be attained.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XIII. History and Civics 211

The point of view — Fact history and human history — Summary as to purpose.

I. Primary History.

Early beginnings — Kinds of historical stories — Stories of primitive life — Stories from real history — Introducing the real historical personage — Selection of stories — Value of biography — Story treatment.

xvi CONTENTS

II. Advanced History.

The book phase — The text and its use — Advantages of a topical method — • The organization of textbooks — Dates in history — Reviews — Aids — Important results.

III. Cmcs.

An outgrowth from other studies — Practical civics. Questions for discussion — Supplemental books for pupils and teachers — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XIV. Geography 231

Old and new types — A study of the earth as the home of man

— Some values.

I. Primary Geography.

The story approach — The nature-study approach — • Suggestive topics — Primary globe lessons — References. II. Advanced Geography.

Need for type studies — What a type study is — Type cities — North America a type continent — Man's contact with nature the center of geography — Map-making — Drawing the schoolroom and the locaUty — Filling in outline maps — Imaginary journeys — Use of pictures — Other helps.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XV. Arithmetic 250

Another necessary tool subject — Some reform tendencies — How little arithmetic we need — The fundamentals in arithmetical instruction.

I. Systems of Primary Method.

The old system — The Grube system — The Rational System — Characteristics of modern method — Demands on rural-school arithmetic.

II. Brief Outline of the Arithmetic Course.

Plan of the course — Induction — Interpretation — Steps in solution — Miscellaneous problems.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XVI. Elementary Science and Agriculture 263

Recognition of values — Moral and religious value of science

— Man's racial evolution — A parallel evolution in the study of nature.

CONTENTS xvii

I. Elementary Nature Study.

Methods — Guiding principles in selection — Methods of study — Correlating the work with other subjects — Suggestive material — Outline of w<5rk.

II. Agriculture.

The teaching of agriculture — School gardens — Boys* and girls' clubs — Types of clubs organized — The general plan for these clubs — Organizing a county — Independent organizations — • Advantages of the project method — Exhibits and awards.

III. Advanced Nature and Agricultural Studies.

Outlines for general bird study — Outlines for insect study

— Other important studies — Topics for study, by months

— Supplementary topics — ■ Good farm lessons.

General helps for teachers — • Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XVn. Physiology, Hygiene, Sanitation . 296

The rural school and health — ■ Physical conditions — ■ What a rural school should teach — Child hygiene important — ^The health survey — The teacher's records — Pupil sanitary surveys — Mental hygiene.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

CHAPTER XVni. Akts and Crafts 306

I. Home Economics.

Club and home work. 1. Cookery.

Some general topics for study and club discussion — Special recipes and menus — Dishwashing — • School lunches — Supplies — Conduct of the work. S. Needlecraft.

Sewing and care of clothes — Neatness and taste.

II. The Manual Arts.

Early grade work — Woodwork — Care of tools — Working drawings — Projects — How to handle the work if there is no special room for it.

Questions for discussion — Books for teachers.

APPENDIX. A List of Twenty Good Books for Rural-School Teachers 317

INDEX 323

LIST OF FIGURES

1. A type of the consolidated school ...... 17

2. A typical rural school of the better class .... 20

3. A typical present-day interior 37

4. A rearranged interior 38

5. A model interior for a one-teacher rural schoolhouse . 40

6. A well-arranged rural schoolhouse 41

7. The model rural school at Mayville, North Dakota . . 42

8. Desk too high, and the result . 43

9. Showing growth in height and weight 66

10. Showing comparative proportion of time to be devoted to the mechanics of reading and to mental and emotional training 139

11. Showing comparison of amount of oral and silent reading advisable in the various grades 156

12. Ayres Measuring-Scale for Ability in Spelling . . . 190

13. Showing proper position of body and paper in writing, with reference to the desk 203

14. One section from the Ayres Handwriting Scale . . . 208

15. One section from the Thorndike Scale 209

16. Health defects in city and country children compared . 299

17. Showing some health conditions brought out by a health survey of a city school system 303

PART I ORGANIZATION, INSTRUCTION, AND CONTROL

TEACHING IN KUKAL SCHOOLS

Introduction

Early American schools. In very early days with any society of people, there were no schools and no teachers as such. Children learned in the family and from people in the group. As knowledge accumulated, teachers became necessary; and as groups grew larger and more complex, schools were started to help the home and the community with the children. Thus, from the first, teachers and schools were designed as auxiliaries of the home and community. The teacher took the place of the parent for the time, and the school was a small community to prepare for life in the larger community. A modern school should keep in mind this same mission.

In our earlier colonial days, people were occupied in the struggle with the wilderness and with a savage people. Very little scholarship was needed for this purpose, hence schools had little to teach. The colonies early took steps to provide the education thought best — reading, writing, spelling, a very little arithmetic, and the rudiments of religion, mainly the catechism. The religious aim was most prominent.

Later on, schools called "Latin Grammar Schools " came to predominate, such being schools after ideas of those in Europe. The prominent aim with these at first was education in the Latin and Greek classics, but later the aim shifted to the discipline of the mind. This led to the introduction of algebra, and to a greater stress on grammar, spelling, and arithmetic, since these furnished the best matter for disciplinary drill. In the nineteenth century the pubUc schools modified this further by gradual additions of some history, geography, physiology, civics, and primary language, though these were taught mainly as dry book-studies and with the same methods of drill.

Changing home conditions. While all this was taking place in the schools, conditions were changing in the home and commimity. At first the home produced nearly all the necessaries of life. Milk, butter, eggs, meat, preserves, jellies, and similar eatables were home products. Grains were raised on the farm and converted into meal, flour, and hominy at home, or at a neighborhood watermill. Wool, cotton, linen, and hides were home products, converted into cloth and leather at home, and there made into clothing for members of the family, harness for the horses, carpets for the floors, and furnishing for beds, windows, etc. Farm, ranch, or plantation had its carpenter and blacksmith shops. Boys and girls entered into all these activities of home productivity and equipment, and thus, without calling it such, they were acquiring a valuable education outside the schools.

This old order has largely passed. With the coming of steam and factories a new order has developed, and most of these industries have gone out from the home. What formerly were home products must now be purchased at stores and markets. Children are thus deprived of valuable industrial training in the home, whilst women and children have not the same opportunities as of old to contribute as much to the support of the family.

Development of the rural-life problem. In this new order towns and cities grew up rapidly. People drifted rapidly from country to town and city. Communities thinned out, many farms were abandoned, and other changes took place

INTRODUCTION 5

to make country life more barren, uninteresting, and apparently undesirable. The country school and the country church, formerly two great centers of community life, were neglected, lost sight of in the drift of things, and nearly starved to death.

Just recently have we awakened to the real state of affairs. To-day we are taking stock and studying readjustments. Very few rural schools have as yet been able to change so as to adapt to the new order of things. This has not been the fault of the teachers. The city has been absorbing the children, teachers, and substance of the country. We now reaHze that, in the long run, this is very bad for both city and country; for, in this land, cities cannot thrive without a prosperous country around, to say nothing of the effect on human character to have a nation run too far cityward.

The enrichment of rural life. Many recent developments tend to change country life into a happier, more fruitful, and a more desirable existence. Better farm machinery, telephones, rural mail dehvery, parcels post, automobiles, and the extension of trolley systems may be mentioned as factors contributing to the enrichment of coimtry life. Farming is becoming more scientific and productive, and the farmer is getting better prices and wider markets for his products, all going to make farming often a better business than merchandising. It can be made one of the most desirable businesses of the world.

The farm, too, can be made one of the most desirable of places in which to Uve and to bring up a family of children. The present barrenness and poverty of cultural influence which characterizes so many of our rural homes is not necessary. A httle more knowledge of life conditions, a httle more taste, and a little more scientific knowledge relating to farming and home-making could greatly change existing conditions. These the rural school should supply. To improve e TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS

farming, to help make better homes and better and happier people, to increase the pleasures and the comforts of the home, and to give a larger outlook to both the children and the parents, is much more the mission of the country school and the country teacher than to teach the common-school branches or to drill in the facts of the textbook or the course of study.

The rural school amid the change. But, while this new and more valuable era is dawning for country life, how about the coimtry school? City schools have made great progress, but the vast majority of rural schools have not been able to readjust to the changed conditions. In many instances the rural school has lost ground, the attendance has dwindled until enthusiasm is gone, many classes have become onepupil classes, games have lost their charm, the best teachers have been taken by town and city, and the community interest in the school has waned. Quite recently, however, a new interest in the rtiral school has sprung forth. It is probably talked of and thought about more to-day than any other educational factor. Teachers, statesmen, philanthropists, and all sorts of writers are turning their attention to the rural school as the greatest factor in the rebuilding of country life. Yet all the laws, all the philanthropies, all the appropriations of money, all the enlargement of school houses and plants, can accomplish little without teachers prepared for the new order. The teacher is the heart of the problem. Teachers must equip for the new order, and must often be the missionaries to convert rural communities to a belief in the new education.

The reorganization and redirection of the rural school. In all problems of social reform, the fundamental factor relied upon for the solution is education, properly directed. Social reformers have cried out against the slums, sweat shops, poverty, and degradation of our large cities. The isolation

INTRODUCTION 7

of the country, with its accompanying intellectual, aesthetic, social, and religious poverty, is a greater challenge to the reformer. How can education be reformed and properly directed to meet the conditions? There is no higher call for service than here.

The problem of reorganizing and redirecting rural education is not a simple or an easy one. Those who would understand the problem must study it in its relations to the entire rural-life problem. The rural-life problem is largely a complex of social, industrial, religious, and educational needs. These needs have a historical development and a sociological setting which the rural teacher ought to understand. To meet these new social, industrial, religious, and educational needs the rural school must redirect itself. In a new way it must minister to the needs of the people who live on the farm. While the teacher who would understand this new problem must read more than this one book, it will nevertheless be the aim of the author, in the pages which follow, to set forth some of the ways by which the rural teacher can organize and teach a better school, and become a more useful community servant.

1. What is meant by isolation of country life?

2. What social gatherings of some years ago served to modify this isolation?

3. Why are these no longer common?

4. WhercLQ is the country school often less valuable socially than it was formerly?

5. "VMiat improvements now help to modify rural isolation? ^

6. Wherein has city influence crippled country schools?

7. What are some of the needs of rural schools to-day?

8. Wherein should there be improvement in teachers for rural schools?

SOME GOOD BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER

Carney, Mabel. Rural Life and the Rural School. (Row, Peterson & Co.) A very helpful book for rural teachers.

Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education. (Houghton Mifflin Company.)

An interesting and comprehensive presentation of the historical development and present status of the rural-life problem, and what are the rural-school needs of to-day. Good for individual reading or group study.

Foght, H. The American Rural School. (The MacmUlan Company.) Hart, J. K. Educational Resources of Rural and Village Communities. (The Macmillan Company.)

Kern, 0. J. Among Rural Schools. (Ginn &. Co.)

Chapter II

THE RURAL SCHOOL I. Its Function and Scope in General

The school a specialized institution. A true democratic community demands that all children shall be initiated into the knowledge, culture, and experience which its people have acquired, and into activities which will make these children thrifty and good members of the community. The school is the institution especially developed by society to aid the family and the community in giving this education. It has had to take over from time to time certain things formerly attended to in the family or the community, but which, owing to changed conditions, must now be left to the school. In many other ways the field of the school is gradually enlarging; but as its work increases in complexity, its origin should be kept in mind. It is an enlarged family and a miniature community with one central interest, the child, and its aim should be continually to supplement the family training and to introduce the child to the larger life of the community.

Education for complete living. A modern behef is that through community activities we find the first approach for the child to the knowledge, culture, and experience of value. Books are necessary, but our school work has become too bookish. We must incorporate into our school practices some of the principles of modern definitions of education, an often quoted one of which is this from Herbert Spencer, " Education is preparation for complete living." He analyzed the activities of complete living as follows: —

1. Activities centering about direct seK-preservation. These have to do with good health, or the bodily life in general.

2. Activities connected with indirect self-preservation, getting food, clothing, shelter, gaining a livelihood. We may style this phase the industrial life.

3. Activities relating to the care and culture of children: the educational life.

4. Activities which pertain to the State and to the community in living the life of a valuable, worthy citizen: the poHtical and social life.

5. Activities associated with leisure, enjoyment, happiness in the recreational and aesthetic life.

These will be more fully treated later on. In this connection it may be emphasized that the best preparation for life comes in the main through life's activities. We should not forget that thought arose out of activity and to guide activity, hence activities must be utilized as factors in developing the thinking powers of children. Our school work has placed the greatest stress upon the intellectual life, the acquisition of knowledge. Gradually the other phases of life are winning recognition, and just now we hear much discussion of vocational education. It remains to make place for this larger program in rural education and none of these phases of life should be neglected.

Rare opportunity of rural schools. The "Back to the Country Movement," and the broader "Rural-Life Movement " of recent years, have alike centered attention on rural schools, and a new order of schools is coming into existence. In the educational reforms of centuries there has been nothing more inspiring than the new educational life now coming into many rural communities. This new life has found a quickening place in every State of the United States. It is at last dawning in public consciousness that the rural school offers probably the best opportunity in the world for an ideal school. Here community activities can be more readily utilized by the school than can be the case in cities. Here vocational education is simpler, and least in danger of creating caste, and country life is most natural and most independent.

Man lived through the pastoral and agricultural stages before cities and machinery appeared on the earth, and in following the historical development of the race the child needs to participate in rural activities. These will not narrow his development as will a restriction to a trade education in the city. It would be a great reform in city education if transportation would carry city children far out in the suburbs to school plants with rural surroundings. And thus the rural school, the stone rejected by the builders, should become the chief corner-stone of the temple of education.

Broadening view of the rural schooL While social and industrial conditions have been rapidly changing, while improved machinery, communications, and scientific farming have been recreating country life, and while the city schools have been making many progressive improvements, the riu'al schools have until recently made but little progress. It is now being reaUzed that the bare rudiments taught in the "little red schoolhouse" or the "old field school" are not sufficient, and that the riu'al school, as well as any other school, should have the ideal of complete living. A reconstructed school is demanded which will be adapted to rural life, and which shall be as complete and extensive of its kind as the city school is of its kind. It is wrong to have to send country children to the city for the best schools, either elementary or high schools.

II. RuEAL Life Needs

Even a hasty examination of the conditions surrounding life in the country reveals clearly certain fundamental needs if rural life is to be made satisfying to the type of young people we would like to retain on the farm. The following stand out clearly as of fundamental importance and are ones the teacher in a rural school should keep clearly in mind: —

I. The bodily life. With all the advantages of the country it is noticeable that city youth often have the better physique and ease of motion. Neither are country people as free from sickness as we have expected of them. Typhoid and other fevers are common, and even tuberculosis claims nearly as high a percentage in country as in city. Indigestion and kindred evils are widely prevalent. Physical education is needed here as elsewhere. Good health is the first prerequisite to a successful and a happy life.

What are the new demands? —

(1) Regular instruction should be given in hygiene, sanitation, and physiology to all children, and this of a very practical type.

(2) Especially should the girls be taught the scientific preparation of foods, what constitutes well-balanced meals, proper care of children and invalids, and home science in general.

(3) The plays, games, and other physical exercises should be as carefully looked after as are the indoor studies.

(4) There should be equipment for play and physical exercise, such as exercise bars, slides, hand swings, volley ball, tether ball, tennis, croquet, and many other playground necessities. These are necessities as much as are school desks.

(5) A health inspector is needed for country schools as well as for city schools. It will be more difficult to secure one for country schools, and the teacher must assist greatly. The teacher can make some beginnings. There should be individual inspection of children, and records kept from year to year of each. Eyes, ears, teeth, nose, throat, chest expansion, position of shoulders, weight, and height should receive attention. The teacher should try to obtain a physical estimate of the school, should aid in giving instruction looking to correction of defects, and thus assist every child to approximate the normal.

2. The intellectual life. It has been well recognized that the school is to assist the child to acquire knowledge and to develop his intellectual capacities. The rural child needs the knowledge which will serve him in his rural environment, and he needs to know broadly the world as his home. Books first, then magazines and newspapers, are intellectual tools he must learn to use and use well. Illiteracy is highest in the country, a condition to be corrected. Book study must go on in the conventional common-school branches, and the library must come in as another factor as necessary as textbooks. Active and abiding intellectual interests must be developed as the best safeguards against the narrowing tendencies of rm-al isolation. Apart from the maddening excitement of modern city life, genius can find itseK best in the reflective quiet of the country if opportunity is there. The public schools are accused of over-mechanization, too much routine, and other things deadening to originality. The freedom possible in rural education offers opportunities of highest value for individuality.