Education: its elementary principles, founded on the nature of man

Front matter

Qass- L S G ?^

EDUCATION:

ITS

Preface

The mos; important point in Anthropology, or the study oi Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Nature ; and the next, to discover the mode in which his physical and mental constitution may be most advantageously improved. Men of eminent talents have considered the principles of education worthy of their attention ; and many works have been already published on this subject. It may therefore be asked, Why should another be presented ? Because education is still conducted in a manner very different from that in which it ought to be. Mankind has improved less than we could wish. '' There are many books," says Helvetu s,

"many schools, but few oersons of underitandin j ; 1*

PREFACE.

tnere are many maxims, but they are seldom applied ; man is old, but still a child." New elucidations of this subject, therefore, are still want ing ; and I hope I shall be able to suggest some new ideas upon it. As, however, many ancient and modern philosophers have examined this subject, several of my ideas may be found in other writings ; but nowhere are they reduced to the principles which I have adopted, and arranged in the same order. I hope also to succeed in point ing out some new objects, interesting in themselves, and leading to important results.

This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — of old habits and selfish passions ; but nothing shall deter me from communicating what appears to me to be founded on the immutable laws of the Creator. His authority is the only one I acknowledge in natural history. Truth is independent of time; it must prevail, though it excite the liatred of the ignorant, the weak, and the jealous.

The reader is requested to bear in mind, that the language in which this treatise is composed, is to the Author a foreign one. A person so situ-

PREFACE.

ated iis not always a competent judge of the nicer shades of meaning attaching to the expressions which he employs ; and from tliis circumstance, together with the difficulty of commanding words to convey his ideas properly, he is liable to be betrayed into a tone of abrupt and apparently authoritative writing, quite foreign to his wish and intention. To these causes the reader is requested to impute any thing in the manner of the following

pages, which may appear not suited to the circumstances OT the subject

Contents

Pag«

CrENiRA-L View. - - - - - - 1

Detinition of Education - - - - ib

Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent 3T .a

Chap, II. On the laws of the vegetative

FUNCTIONS « _ - -

L>-iration of life _ , - - - 5

I^eriod I. From birth to two years, or infancy 63

Temperature - - - - • 63

Food 65

X CONTENTS,

Page

Light 70

Cleanliness - - - - - - 71

Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise - 72

Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 74

Dentition Dietetic rules ~ _ - ib

Chap. III. On the laws of exercise - - 84 Meaning of the word exercise - - - 88

Exercise of intellectual faculties - - 91

of feelings ----- 92

Signs, Greek and Latin _ - - - 96

The means of exercising the faculties are different 1 1 4

Order of exercising the faculties - - - IIC

Different success of exercise - . - - 121

Mutual instruction _ _ - - _ 124

Exercise increases the organs - - 130

Chap. iV. Mutual influence of the faculties AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT - - 133

Mnemonics - - - - - - 135

SECT. II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE

FACULTIES - - - 140

Phap. I. Importance of morality - - 14J Happiness founded more on morality than on

C/HAP. II Each faculty tends to action - 148 Regulation of the mode in which gratificat on

should be sought - _ - - t5i

Proper employment of tfce faculties * ' 163

CCNTENTS. XI

Page

Little effect of precepts _ - _ - 154

Faculties which assist each other - - 155

Direction of amativencss and of religious feelings 16^^

Objects of education ----- 167

Chap. III. 3Iotives to action - - - 171

Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions 173

Different motives may produce the same action 174

Selfishness and approbativeness - - - 178

Chap. IV. Differexces of natuPvAL endowment 185 Class I. Where the superior faculties predominate ------- i6.

Class II. Where one or several inferior, and

one or several superior are very active - 186 Class III. Where certain of the inferior faculties are strong, and all the superior weak - ib. Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling ib. Education to be varied with different individuals 188 Individuals should be placed in situations for

which they are naturally fitted - - - 190

Chap. V. Education op the sexes - - 205

Condition of women - - - - - ib.

There is a natural difference in the mental

powers of the sexes _ 1. _ - 207

Certain feelings stronger in women than in men 210 Certain intellectual pov/ers stronger in men

than in women ------ 215

Chap. VII. On public and on private education 264 Conclusion ^66

Xii CONTENTS.

Appendix

Page

On the coRRECTiori and reform of malefactors 268

Definition of legislation - - - - 269

Aim of Legislation - - _ _ 272

Means of preventing crime - - - {5.

Means of correcting Malefactors - - 280

Treatment of incorrigible offenders - - 289

On illegal actions without guilt - - 294

I. Illegal actions of idiots - - - - 295

II. Illegal actions of madmen - - - 299

On illegal actions which admit of extenuating

Strong mental affections - - « - 392

Child-murder -----. 308

Conclusion -,.---- 318

Appendix To The American Edition

The Temperaments, with Illustrations, - - - 319

Symbolical Head, ...--- 322

Definition of the Phrenological Organs, - - . 323

Importance of Phrenology, .... 320

Illustrated Views of the Brain, ... 330

Testimonials in favor of Phre-nolofjy, - - - 332

Memoir of Dr. Gall, with a Portrait, . . - 333

ELEME

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

GENERAL VIEW.

The preliminaTy points to be considered in thii general view, are, 1. The definition of the word Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind 3. The little success which has hitherto attended Education ; 4. The singleness of the human species ;— and, 5. The usefulness of Education.

As to the definition of Education, I think it necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in this volm-ne several topics, which are not generally considered as falling under Education, in the common acceptation of the word, merely denoting instruction in literature and accomplishments ; I use this term as embracing every means which can be made to act upon the vegetative, affective, and intellectual constitution of man, 2 for the purpose of improving this his threefold nature.

Being asked what I mean by human nature } I reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, nor animal propensities, affections, or passions ; noi moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it organization in general, nor any system of the body, nor any particularity whatever ; — but human nature, in the proper sense of the words, comprehends all the observable phenomena of life, from the moment of conception to that of death, both in the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all the manifestations both of the body and mind.

The next introductory point to be elucidated is, whether human nature is susceptible of perfection or degradation.

In speaking of the susceptibility of being perfected, it is not to be understood that man may lose one faculty and acquire another ; for the fundamental nature of man being unchangeable, in body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such an event is impossible on earth. The meaning- of the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether certain powers are capable of attaining greater or ei^s activity ; — whether some of them may prevail over otliers; and, »vhether the mutual influence of the faculties and their actions may be regulated and well conducted.

GENERAL VIEW.

In this alter significatioix' alone, the answer is -.flh'mative. Such a perfectibility exists in all living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for iiistance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, 01 diminished. Fruit trees may be modified as to their growth, or fruit, their produce. Each part of the bodies of animals is subject to great variations. Animals, also, arc not confined to actions which their preservation requires. They modify their conduct according to the situation in which they may be placed ; hence they are susceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instructed to play various tricks. They have also a recollection of what has happened to them, and modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox which has escaped several snares, and knows that he- is watched, takes greater precautions, and proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches tiie habitations of man, with a view of stealing poultry. A bird, whose nest lias been destroyed in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of placing it, in future, in a more retired situation ; and the construction of the second nest is also more solid and more perfect than that of the first. A doix resists its instinct to run after a hare, because it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled. There are even facts on record of learned pigs and learned canary birds. Similar examples are within Mie

4 EDUCATION OF xMAN.

knowledge o. every one, and it is therefore unnecessary to multiply them. Yet this power oi modifying their actions is not unbounded in animals, but limited according to their nature. Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be taught to hunt like falcons and dogs.

Man offers similar appearances. The various modifications to which his body is liable, are known. The manifestations of the mind alsc vary in different persons, even in whole nations. Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has always been essentially the same. The only difference, observed at different times, has been, that the manifestations of the special powers have been more or less active, modified, and variously employed.

The next question is, Whether man, with respect to his feelings and intellect, has improved or degenerated ? By some authors, mankind is said to have arrived at a greater state of perfection than it originally enjoyed ; while others lament its progressive degeneracy. The improvement or degeneracy of the human race, in regard to a knowledge of the external world, the practice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are particularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation of thefee points would require a whole volume : it IS my intention only to take a general view o^ therr - ' '

(t is superfluous to mention, that the moderns c.ijoy a great superiority over the ancients, with respect to every branch of natural history and natural philosophy. The Baconian and true method of studying Nature, founded on observation and induction, has been recently discovered and introduced. It has forwarded every kind of positive knowledg^e in an astonishing degree. It has, however, been unfortunately neglected in the study of man, and hence his nature is but little known. It is true, whatever it was in the power of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observation, to discover, was discovered by the ancient philosophers. But the knowledge of man remained extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenology alone will supply this defect, and reduce Anthropology to invariable principles.

In the fine arts of imitation, mode^'n artists find it difiicult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere imitation of ancient productions ; nature always remains the best model, inexhaustible in her modifications, whilst, by the former proceeding, the arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is impeded.

The arts of industry have undoubtedly improv- ^ ed, and political economy may be considerd as a science of modern days. The state of mankind at large is evidcntlv better than in ancient times.

9* and during the ages of darkness ; and it will still improve, in proportion as ignorance and immorality are removed, and the laws of the Creator atended to.

The improvement oi degeneracy of man, as regards his moral and religious opinions, presents a particular interest, even with respect to his worldly happiness. Both these sorts of notions vary, accordins* to the different states of civilization, and they are, by no means, stationary, any more than the functions of every other faculty.

Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and generally consider all Superior Beings as malevolent, and worship them through fear. People in a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be endowed v/ith all human feelings ; they required food and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and implacable. He had overturned every thing in heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more noble. They were mercenary, and could be bribed by fine temples, games, and more acceptable sacrifices. People of little instruction divided the invisible beings into benevolent and malevolent. Others admitted two principles ; one benevolent, the other malevo ent ; and they acknbw-

GENERA"! VIEW. 7

ledged also many inferior deities, a3 emanations from the primitive ones. Persons of more culti vated minds believe in one supreme benevolen deity ; and in inferior spirits, some benevolent others malevolent. The most enlightened ac knowledged only one Supreme Being, boundless in perfection, and the maker of every creature.

The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu iar consideration in the history of mankind. It s always conformable to the notions entertained of the natiT^e of the Deity. In order to avert the wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please them, men have made themselves as miserable as possible, by mortifications, flagellations, painfuJ labors, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and suicides. To gain the favor of manlike gods, sweetsmelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts. agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies which illustrate a prince at his covert, and various sorts of formalities, have been ero'/.oyed.

If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their moral precepts are very different. The old dispensation may be viewed as accommodated to the Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub btirn race

8 EDUCATION OF MA!T.

The God of Israel was jealous, reveng'eful, ter rible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even of bloody sacrifices. I^e commanded his people to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not jhey his commandments ; even those who kindled fire on the sabbath day. NciMie? brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wify nor friend, was to be spared, if he served Jinother god. He who knew an infidel, was forjjaden to pity, conceal or save him ; on the c^/ntrary, it was his duty to stone nim. (Exod. xxr.v Deuteronomy xiii.)

The God of Chr^tians, on the contrary, is love, oenevolence au'l charity. He is the father of the vvhole o^ mankind, and wishes for universal happiness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner epep.t. He gives the same laws to all, makes no 3:^ce>t:on, and pays no attention to the appear ?.Qje of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards overy one after his actions. He is a Spirit that 3annot be confined to temples, and is to be adored n spirit and in truth. (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John v. Matt. vi. &c.)

The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to .hose of their own race ; they were permitted to 'ake usury from foreigners, and to hate them. David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate hose who hate thee ? T hate them with perfect 'tatred." (Ps cxxxvii: They were ordered to form a separate nation, and prohibited from intermarrying with other people. Their food was prescribed ; many things were interdicted and declared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines. The husband was allowed to put away his wife ; it was sufficient to write- her a bill of divorcement, &c. &c.

How superior and more noble are the principles ol Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; they command forgiveness of every offence seven times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. They interdict all selfish passions, and declare out neighbor every one wiiOx does the will of God. Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation. He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with publicans and sinners, and declared those only who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his mother, sister or brother.

No food is an abomination to Christians. Christ said, "Not that which enters into the mouth defiles a man ;" and St. Paul declares to the Romans, " I know and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in itself." Christ permitted only one wife, and in this respect re-established the law as it was from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.)

Before the Christian dispensation, empires were founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and frightful destruction of the vanquished.

Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts himself shall be abased. He made no distinctioo among persons, and considered love and peace as the aim of all commandments. He only proposed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the acceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by the sword. He directed his disciples only to shake off the dust of their feet, in departing out of that house or city where they had not been courteously received, or where their words had not been attended to.

The superiority of the Christian principles above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more worthy than Moses ;" and (vii. 20.) " by s-o much was Christ made a surety of a better Testament ;" and, (viii. 7.) "if the first Covenant had been faultless, then should noplace have been found for the second.' True Christianity really improves the moral and religious character of a lew.

la regard to morality, it is indeed impossible to establish better principles than have been pointed out in the New Testament. But since these rules, unexampled in ancient legislatloiu hava been established, the followers of Christian! ty have often fallen back to many of the contemptible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have disputed, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meal on certain days, in the same manner as Mahome dans dispute, whether coffee be or be not prohib ited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral and religious conduct have improved by degrees ; and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better understood. True Christianity will gain, by every step which is made in the knov/ledge of man.

Let us now see whether Education is advanced as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles of Christian morality, and the numerous master pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, that hitherto education has succeeded less than the friends of humanity wish for. Indeed, if we ex amine its influence on the improvement of mankind, a thousand years is like ci day that is past. Who has not seen children of the* mc-^t pious and

\2 exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, anc! plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And who has not observed that licentiousness often prevails in the most enlightened and refined classes of society ? Who has not observed very limited talents appear in the offspring of men of the greatest genius ? Now the inferences to be drawn from such facts are, that either the education has not been adapted to the natural dispositions of those individuals, or that every one is not capable of receiving the full effect of a good education ; and as man, in general, hitherto has little improved by education, we must conclude that either he is less perfectible than we may wish for. or that the true means of improvement have not been employed. The latter cause seems to me the most proh able, and it may be principally accounted for by our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and animals succeed only, if treated according to their natural qualities, and the education of man will not and cannot succeed, without adapting it to his nature.

Some philosophers have endeavored to degrade man to a level with the brute ; while others have fancied that he has nothing whatever in common with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties of man are considered as the result of external impressions, and accidental circumstances ; whi.e others believe that the existence of each person, and all the phenomena of that existence, are the effects of oredestinatioa.

I shall mention a few particulars concerning the g-reat error, according to which the champions of education consider new-born children as blank paper, on which they can mark every impression. But, under such a supposition, why are children ^f the same family so different ? Why can teachers lot communicate their own talents to every pupil ? Why cannot every one, who understands the mas- Lerpieces of genius, produce similar effects ? Why is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every painter a Raphael ? The rules which lead to perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for every one to put them into practice, if no innate pv? vers were necessary. Experience, then, forces ua to decide entirely against such speculative assei lions; those, who have been engaged in conduciiing education, are convinced that they are incapable of producing those talents and feelings in children which they could wish ; and those, who assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and instead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy.

Many defenders of education wish to persuade-* us, that the first impressions in early age determine the direction of the mind. I do not deny their influence, but it is less than it is generally supposed to be. Children, in their early years, are almost excli^sively intrusted to the care of females, vet boys and girls show from the earliest 3 infancy their distinctive characters ; and this difference between the sexes continues through life. A marked variety of tempers and capacities may be observed in children, as soon as they are susceptible of any impression. Children, like adult persons, are differently affected by the same external circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to be observed, are more or less permanent. How often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we are at one time perfectly acquainted with a subject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never known it ? How, then, is it possible to believe, what individual impressions, received at a period when the mind is almost inactive, determine the character or the mental capacities of a child foj his whole life ? On the other hand, it is wel. known, that many individuals turn out very dif ferent from what they appeared at an earlier period of life. It must therefore be allowed, that the above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support from experience

I do not hesitate to maintain, that education must fail, as long as we continue to think that children are born alike, and may receive, with equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. J. Rousseau had taken care of his children, instead of sending them to the public hospital, he would have detected his erroneous conceptions •: he would have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds af feeling ; that education only weakens, or invigorates and refines them ; that children react on external circ^nnstances, according to their natural dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt education to the nature of individuals. Hence, the first thing to be done, is to trace back the faculties of children to their origin. Such a knowledge will contribute to the advancement of art& and sciences, and to the improvement of moral conduct, by suggesting suitable means for directing the energies of children to the objects which they are most fitted by nature to attain. "There are ^e\v subjects," says Dugald Ste^vart, " more hackneyed than that of education, and yet there if none upon which the opinions of the world ar{ still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; fo most of those v/ho have speculated concerning h have confined their attention chiefly to incidentcquestions about the comparative advantage of put lie or private instruction, the utility of peculia language or sciences, without attempting a pre vious examination of those faculties and principle of the mind, which it is the great object of educa tion to improve." — (Elements of the Philosopln of the Human Mind, p. 62.)

Another great error in education, also foundet on our ignorance of the human nature^ is, tha every teacher takes himself as a model for hi« pupils. What he likes and learns with facilit}' he supposes ought to be equally liked and learne> by every other person ; while in every child, the feeling's and intellectual faculties, though essentially the same, are modified in quantity and quality Hitherto, on account of none of the systems ;f education hein^ founded on a correct analysis of the faculties of man, education has been conducted altogether in a general way ; and hence almost every individual who thinks for himself ivhen arrived at the age of maturity, has found it necessary to begin a new course of education, according to his individual character and talents.

Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently understood in education, concerns the organic conditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend. This is the object of n new doctrine, and is detailed in my work on Phrenology, Vol. I.

'> Education, though it does not create any iK)wer j whatever, may produce great effect ; but for that pjirpose its whole system must be changed, and this will be done in proportion as the nature of man becomes known, and as it shall be acknowledged that man must be perfected like other created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and must submit to the determined sway which prevails in her government. He errs the moment he ceases to observe, and begirs to excogitate. The construction of a system of education cannot be a creative but an imitative process, •which must bo founded only on the lessons of experience. Here, as in the cultivation of every other science, it is not by the exercise of a sublime and speculative ing-enuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by letting himself down to simple observation, — by rejecting- equally the authority of antiquity, and of eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to nature ; — by sacrificing every consideration that opposes the evidence of observation, and its legitimate and well established conclusions ; — by being able to renounce all the favorite opinions of infancy, the moment that truth demands the sacrifice ; — in short, by following only the lights of observation and induction. " Does not our happiness depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the knowledge of the various relations which man bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the practice of the duties which they impose ; and how are we to discover these relations, except by the assistance ol reason, operating on experience? Can false views of human nature, and its attributes, increase the happiness of the human race individually ; or can political society, framed on such erroneous principles, attain the end for which alone society was framed ? ' Deception and niendacy are always regarded in the common and every day intercourse of life as base and odious,-- Is it then only upon subjects of the highest iir. portance to man^ tnat he maybe deceived without darger or detestation ?'" (Retrospective Review. No. I. p 71.) 1 concur ent.rely in these sentiments

3*

My ideas on the nature of man, on his fundamental powers ; on tlieir innateness ; on the conditions of their manifestations in this Ufe ; on the moral liberty, and several other points, are exposed, with details, in works entitled Physiological and Philosophical Principles of Phrenology. ( suppose these points to be known to those who take up this volume, composed merely with phrenological views, and founded on mere phrenological principles.

In treating of Education and Legislation, it seems important to examine, Whether there is only one species of the human race, or whetiier there are several ? The great variety of bodily and mental appearances ; — of features, complexion, size, and configuration ; — of feelings and intellectual powers, — must strike the most superficial observer. The causes of these differences have been examined, and various hypotheses have been invented to account for them. Some authors have had recourse to different original species ; others have accounted for these modifications, by the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural to ask. Whether a Negro and a White Man, a Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord Bacon, are of the same species ? Whether the Cannibal, whose earthly and expected heavenly pleasures are gratffications of the low animal passions, and the true Christian, fill of kindness and boaignity j whether .be whose ingenuity is exercised nerely in destruction and devastation, and he v/ho beholds all creatures as objects of Divine providence and beneficence, were originally formed after the same image ?