Ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America

Preface

THIS little book is intended as a general commentary and explanation of the more important phases of the ancient life and arts of the Indians of Mexico and Central America, and especially of their history. The substance of it is drawn from many sources, for the anthropologist must mould together and harmonize the gross results of several sciences. Archaeology, etiinology, somatology, and linguistics all make their special contributions and we are only on the threshold of our subject. In the Mexican and Central American field we find the accumulated writings that result from four hundred years of European contact with the Indians and in addition a mass of native documents and monumental inscriptions expressed in several hieroglyphic systems.

The general method of this book will be to take up in order the recognized "horizons" of pre-Columbian history, beginning with the earliest of which we have knowledge. In relation to each horizon we will examine the records and discuss the principal developments in arts, beliefs, and social structures. The introductory chapter is designed to put before the reader such facts as may be necessary for a ready understanding of the discussions and explanations that will follow.

The Mexican Hall of the American Museum of Natural History furnishes illustrations of most of the facts given herewith. This Hall contains both originals and casts brought together by various expeditions of the Museum and of other scientific institutions. The principal patrons of science whose names should be mentioned in connection with the upbuilding of these collections are: Willard Brown, Austin Corbin, R, P. Doremus, Anson W. Hard, Archer M. Huntington, Morris K. Jesup, James H. Jones, Minor C. Keith, the Duke de Loubat, William Mack, Henry Marquand, Dr. William Pepper, A. D. Straus, I. McI. Strong, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Henry Villard, William C. Whitney. But thanks are also due to innumerable persons who have contributed single specimens and small collections as well as those who have placed information at the disposal of the scientific staff. The principal collectors have been: George Byron Gordon, Ales Hrdlicka, Carl Lumholtz, Francis C. Nicholas, Marshall H. Saville, and Eduard Seler.

Contents

PAGE

Preface 5

Geography and Natural Environment. History of European Contact. Languages. Ethnology. Physical Types.

CHAPTER I The Archaic Horizon 43

Stratification of Remains. Invention of Agriculture. Archaic Figurines. Ancient Customs. Archaic Pottery. Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. Local Developments of Archaic Art. Summary.

CHAPTER II The Mayan Civilization 65

Architecture. Massive Sculptural Art. Minor Arts. The Serpent in Mayan Art. The Human Figure. Design Composition and Perspective. The Mayan Pantheon. The Mayan Time Counts. Elements of the Day Count. The Conventional Year. The Calendar Round. Mayan Numbers. The True Year. The Lunar Calendar. The Venus Calendar. Hieroglyphs. Codices. Bases of Mayan Chronology. Historical Development of Art. Dated Monuments. Books of Chilan Balam. Correlation with Christian Chronology. Summary of Mayan History.

Chapter III

Zapotecan Culture. Totonacan Culture. The Toltecs. Xochicalco. San Juan Teotihuacan. Tula. Cholula. The Frontier Cities of the Northwest. Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa. The Chorotegan Culture. Isthmian Gold Work.

CHAPTER IV The Aztecs 177

Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and Romans. The Chichimecas. Aztecan History. Social Organization. The Tecpan or Temple Enclosure. The Calendar Stone. Stone of Tizoc. Coatlicue. Mexican Writing. Aztecan Religion. Conceptions of the Universe. Ceremonies. Poetry and Music. Minor Aztecan Arts. The Tarascans. Southern Mexico. Mitla. Aztecan Influence in Central America.

Conclusion 223

Bibliography 225

Index 229

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Funerary Urn from a Zapotecan Tomb Frontispiece

Map of Mexico and Central America showing the Principal Archaeological Sites with a Detail Insert of the Valley of Mexico Facing 42

PLATES I. a, Village Scene in Arid Mexico; h, In the Humid Lowlands 15

II. a, Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guatemala; b, A Spanish Church at the Village of CamotanontheRoadtoCopan 23

III. a, View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten; h,

The Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza 28

IV. a, A Guatemala huipili; b, Pouches of the Valiente

Indians 38

V. a, Zapotecan Girl from the State of Oaxaca; b, Lacan-

done Woman from Southern Mexico .... 40 VI. a, Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts; b, Archaic Figures which show a Quality of Caricature or

possibly Portraiture 48

VII. a, Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period; b, Tjqjical

Site of the Archaic Period 55

VIII. Widely Distributed Female Figurines 57

IX. Distribution of the Archaic Culture 58

X. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World . . 60 XI. A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan . 66 XII. a, View of the Plaza at Copan from the Northwestern Corner; b, View Across the Artificial AcropoUs at Copan 68

XIII. A Temple at Hochob showing Elaborate Facade

Decorations in Stucco 70

XIV. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at

U.xmal 71

XV. a, Realistic Designs on Vases from Chamd, Guatemala; b, The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase from Copan 78

XVI, Stela 13, Piedras Negras 90

XVII. a, The Upper Portion of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan, dealing with the Heavens; b, Analogous Detail of Stela 4,

Yaxchilan 95

XVIII. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the

Codex Tro-Cortesianus 102

XIX. Typical Majan Inscription 106

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

XX. Page 24 Dresden Codex 116

XXI. a, Detail of the Dresden Codex showing Tonalamatl used in Divination; h, Analysis of the above Tonalamatl, according to Forstemann 120

XXII. Development in Style of Carving at Copan . . . 123

XXIII. General View of Monte Alban from the North . . 138

XXIV. Detail of Monte Alban showing the Foundation Walls

of Small Cell-like Rooms 140

XXV. Zapotecan Pottery, Incense Burners, and Funerarv

XXVI. a, Sculpture of Stone of the Early Zapotecan Period;

h, Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension . . . 144

XXVII. Laughing Head of the Totonacs 147

XXVIII. a, An Elaborately Carved Stone Collar; h, A Palmate

Stone from the State of Vera Cruz .... 148 XXIX. The Temple at Xochicalco before Restoration . . 154 XXX. a, The Temple at Xochicalco after Restoration; h,

Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula . . 156 XXXI. a, Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in

Several Colors; fe, A View at La Quemada . . . 159 XXXII. Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of

Guerrero 165

XXXIII. a, Finely Carved Ceremonial Slab found at Mercedes, Costa Rica; 6, Stone Figure from Costa Rica; c. Ceremonial Slab decorated with Monkeys. Mercedes, Costa Rica 169

XXXIV. a, The Gold Work of the Ancient Mexicans; h, Orna-

ment of Gold from Costa Rica 173

XXXV. A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma ... 178 XXXVI. Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis . . . 180

XXXVII. Sahagun's Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico City . . 188

XXXVIII. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs 190

XXXIX. The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca 193

XL. Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the Serpent- Skirted Goddess 195

XLI. Page from the Tonalamatl Section of the Codex Bor-

bonicus 202

XLII. a, Pictures of Tlaloc, the God of Rain, and of Ehecatl, the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano; h, Mexican Genealogical Table on Maguey Paper . 204 XLIII. a, A Page from the Codex Nuttall; h, Zapotecan

Cruciform Tomb near Mitla 219

XLIV. a, Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla; 6-c, The God,

Macuilxochitl, Five Flower 221

TEXT FIGURES

PAGE

1. The Groat Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic

Record of the Aztecs 13

2. A Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Eruption 16

3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare 20

4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as a Demi-god 20

5. Spanish Shi]) in the Aubin Codex 22

6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moctezuma brings

him Gold 25

7. Ancient Aztecan Canoe 26

8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon 35

9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians .■ 35

10. Atzcapotzalco Destroyed 44

11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco 45

12. Tcoce7illi or Mexican Fodder Grass 46

13. Figurines from the Earliest Culture Horizon in Mexico . . . 49

14. Archaic Figurine from Salvador 50

15. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines 51

16. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies 52

17. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morelos,

Mexico 53

IS. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone Amulet 54

19. Stone Sculpture with protruding Eyes and other Archaic

Characters. Costa Rica 62

20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples 72

21. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern Yucatan . 73

22. Section through Middle of Temple of the Cross 75

23. MaskPanelover Doorway at Xkichmook. Yucatan ... 77

24. Design on Engraved Pot representing Tiger seated in

Wreathe of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan ... 80

25. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent issuing

from a Shell. Salvador 80

26. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Sculpture 81

27. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas 82

28. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decorative Pur-

poses 83

29. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret Ornament . . 85

30. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan 87

31. Tvpes of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan ... 87

32. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11, Seibal 88

33. The Ceremonial Bar 91

34. The Manikin Scepter 91

35. The Two-Headed Dragon 92

36. Gods in the Dresden Codex 94

37. The Twenty Day Signs of the Mavan Month 98

38. The Nineteen M"onth Signs of the Mayan Year 100

39. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas 103

40. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions 105

41. The Normal Forms ot the Period Glj'phs 105

42. Face Forms of Period Glyphs 105

43. Representations of the Moon 108

TEXT FIGURES 11

PAGE

44. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series 109

45. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions 114

46. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element kin . . . 114

47. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex . . 119

48. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelae at

Piedras Negras, showing the increase in Flamboyant Treatment 125

49. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, Copan 126

50. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily attached to Fore-

head 126

51. Late Sculpture from Chichen Itza 127

52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heads . . . 139

53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs on Zapote-

can Monuments 141 ■

54. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines 146

55. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuacan .... 157

56. Vessel with "C/oisonne" Decoration in Heavy Pigments . . 162

57. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting with

Wax at Totoate, Jalisco 163

58. Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone. Salvador .... 164

59. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in Chorotegan

60. Jaguar Design associated with Figurines that still retain

Archaic Characters. Costa Rica . 168

61. Crocodiles from painted Nicoyan Vases 168

62. Highly Conventionalized Crocodile Motive 170

68. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on Dishes from

Mercedes, Costa Rica . . .171

64. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in White Lines on Large

Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica 171

65. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of

Mercedes, Costa Rica 171

66. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and Panama . . 172

67. Pictographic Record of the Conquest of the Springs of

Chapultepec 183

68. Details from the Stone of Tizoc 194

69. Detail showing the Construction of the Face of Coatlicue . . 196

70. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials 197

71. Aztecan Place Names 198

72. Aztecan Day Signs 199

73. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs 200

74. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce 200

75. Analysis of Mexican Record 201

76. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water 205

77. A Mexican Orchestra 213

78. Mexican Blanket with the Design representing Sand and

Water 216

79. A Year Symbol from Southern Mexico 218

80. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz ascribed to the

Cuicatecan Tribe 218

81. Wall Paintings of Mitla - ... 222

Introduction

Geography and Natural Environment. Unfortunately the terms "Mexico and Central America" are not mutually exclusive. Central America is a natural division comprised between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Isthmus of Panama. Mexico is a political division that includes several states in Central America, namely, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and the territory of Quintana Roo.

The ancient high cultures of Mexico hardly extended as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and the region beyond this is of slight interest to us. Positions south of Mexico will often be referred to the areas of the modern political units although these have no immediate relation to pre-Spanish conditions. These political units are: Guatemala, British Honduras, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

Although lying within the tropics, the territory extending from the Isthmus of Panama to Central Mexico exhibits great extremes of climate and topography and hence of plant and animal life. The year is everywhere divided into a wet and a dry season but the relative duration of each depends upon land form and altitude. The coast of the Pacific is considerably drier than that of the Atlantic. Three climatic zones are generally recognized, namely, the Tierra Caliente (Hot Land),

Fig. 1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic Record of the Aztecs called Codex Telleriano Remensis.

Tierra Templada (Temperate Land), and Tierra Fria (Cold Land), and in some regions each of these has an arid and a humid strip. The change from luxuriant forests to open thorny deserts is often very sudden. On the high plateau or Tierra Fria the natural warmth of the latitude is largely overcome by the altitude. In the Valley of Mexico snow falls only at rare intervals yet chilling winds are common in the winter. Much of the plateau from Mexico south into Guatemala is open farming land well suited to the raising of maize and wheat where water is sufficient. The shoulders of the mountains bear forests of pine and oak while the highest peaks are crowned with perpetual snow.

A description of the mountains, rivers, and lakes will help towards an understanding of the problems that are before us. The broad plateau, crossed by irregular ranges of mountains, that occupies the states of New Mexico and Arizona continues far south into Mexico. On the western rim the Sierra Madre lifts a great pinecovered barrier, beyond which the land drops off quickly into the hot fringe of coastal plain bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. The highest mountains of the western Sierra Madre are El Nevado and Colima, the first a snowj^ peak 14,370 feet high and the second an active volcano 12,278 feet high. On the western rim of the central plateau the second Sierra Madre is less continuous but it culminates in the loftiest peak of all Mexico — the wonderful cone of Orizaba. This mountain rises from the tropical jungles well into the region of perpetual snow and attains an elevation of 18,314 feet above the sea. Its name in Aztecan is Citlaltepetl, which means Star Mountain. Two other famous peaks of Mexico are Popocatepetl and Iztacchihuitl, both names being pure Aztecan. The first means Smoking Mountain and the second

Plate I. (a) Village Scene in Arid Mexico. Cactus and other thorny shrubs are ever present. The houses of the natives are of adobe with thatched roofs. (6) In the Humid Lowlands. The view shows part of the plaza at Quirigua with one of the monuments almost concealed in vegetation of a few months' growth.

White Woman. These volcanic crests rise into the snowy zone from the table-hmd which is itself about 8,000 feet above the sea.

In southern Mexico the plateau area enclosed between the principal sierras narrows perceptibly, because the shore line of the Pacific and the mountain range that parallels it swing more and more towards the east. At the Isthmus of Tehuantepec a low valley separates the highland area of Mexico from that of Central America. This second table-land is not so wide as the one we have just considered and is more deeply dissected by rivers.

The mountains of Guatemala rise to a considerable altitude, the highest being Tacana with 13,976 feet elevation. Active volcanoes are numerous and earthquakes frequent and often disastrous.

The Volcan de Agua and the Volcan de Fuego (Volcano ^ of Water and Volcano of Fire) look down upon Ct\idad ^ Vieja and Antigua Guatemala, the old Spanish capitals which each in turn destroyed. The cordillera still presents its most abrupt front to the Pacific and on the eastern side, in Guatemala and Honduras, there are high forest-bearing ridges between the river systems. The Cockscomb Mountains in British Honduras are a low outlying group. In southern Nicaragua the main chain is broken by a low broad valley that extends from ocean to ocean. In Costa Rica and Panama a single range stretches midway along the narrow strip of land, with peaks that rise above 11,000 feet.

Fig. 2. The Smoke reaches the Stars, a Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Eruption in the Codex Telleriano Remensis.

The lowlands on the Pacific side of our area form a narrow fringe which becomes more valuable for agricultural purposes as we proceed towards the south. The lowlands of the Atlantic side are of varying widths. The greatest land mass of uniformly low elevation is the Peninsula of Yucatan. In eastern Honduras and Nicaragua there are extensive river valleys of low elevation.

The river systems of Mexico and Central America flow into the two bounding oceans or into lakes which have no outlets. Several closed basins occur on the Mexican table-land. The Rio Nazas and the Rio Nieves flow into salt marshes in the northern state of Coahuila. But the most important interior basin is the Valley of Mexico. In this mountain enclosed valley, whose general level is 7,500 feet above the sea, there are five lakes which in order from north to south are named Tzompanco, Xaltocan, Tezcoco, Xochimilco, and Chalco. The last two contain fresh water, since they drain into Lake Tezcoco, but the rest are more or less brackish. Lake Tezcoco is by far the largest although its area has been greatly reduced by natural and artificial causes since the coming of the Spaniards.

The largest river of Mexico is the Rio Lerma which takes the name Rio de Santiago during its deep and tortuous passage from Lake Chapala to the Pacific. Farther to the south is the Rio de las Balsas which likewise flows into the western ocean. The name means "River of the Rafts" and is given because of a peculiar floating apparatus made of gourds tied to a wooden framework that is used on this stream. Flowing into the Gulf of Mexico are several large streams, among which may be mentioned the Panuco, Alvarado, Grijalva, and Usumacinta. The last is by far the greatest in volume of water, and with its maze of tributaries drains a large area of swamp and jungle in which are buried some of the most wonderful ruined cities of the New World.

In the northern part of Yucatan there are no rivers on the surface on account of the porous limestone. Instead there are great natural wells called cenotes where the roofs of subterranean rivers have fallen in. Many of the ancient cities were built near such natural wells.

Passing to the south the most important river of Guatemala is the Motagua, which has cut a fine valley through a region of lofty mountains. In Honduras there are several large rivers, including the Uloa, Patuca, and Segovia. The lake region of Nicaragua is drained by the San Juan River that flows into the Caribbean Sea. Nearly all the streams of Central America that flow into the Pacific are short and steep torrents. An important exception is the Lempa River that forms part of the interior boundary of Salvador.

Concerning lakes, mention has already been made of Chapala and Tezcoco, the most important in Mexico. The former is about fifty miles in length. In the state of Michoacan there are a number of beautiful lakes intimately connected with the history and mythology of the Tarascan Indians. The most famous is called Patzcuaro. In southern Yucatan the shallow body of water known as Lake Peten also has a distinct historical interest. Several lakes in Guatemala are well known on account of the rare beauty of their situation. Lake Atitlan is surrounded by lofty mountains, and Lake Izabal, or Golfo Dulce, is famous for the luxuriance of the vegetation that screens its banks. Lakes Nicaragua and Managua are well known on account of their connection with the much-discussed canal projects.

The Island of Ometepec in Lake Nicaragua bears an active volcano.

In regard to the geology it is only necessary to point out a few of the more important characters. The highlands which bear so many active and quiescent volcanoes naturally show great masses of eruptive rocks, some due to recent action and others much more ancient. Porous tufa is a common material for sculptures in many parts of Mexico and Central America. In other places there are great beds of softer and finer grained material also of volcanic origin. In these places, such as Copan in western Honduras and Mitla in southern Mexico, building in stone received its greatest development. The soft greenish stone of Copan seems to be a solidified mud flow permeated with volcanic ash rather than a true lava flow of melted rock. Limestones are also common and important in the economic development. In some regions there are beds of a hard, blue limestone going back to the Carboniferous epoch. This stone makes an excellent cement after burning. The Peninsula of Yucatan is a great plain of limestone of much more recent formation. Like our own Florida it was once a coral reef which was lifted above the sea by some natural agency. This limestone gets older and more solid as we approach the base of the peninsula but at best is rather porous and coarse-grained.

The fauna and flora present great variation. In the moist lowlands the monkeys play in the tree tops and the jaguar lies in wait for its prey. Alligators and crocodiles infest the rivers and swamps. Two small species of deer and the ocellated turkey are important items m the meat supply of Yucatan, that includes also the iguana, the peccary, and various large rodents. The tapir and manatee are the largest animals of the lowlands but neither seems to have been of great signifi-

Fig. 3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare. From the Mayan Codex, Tro- Cortesianus.

canee to tlie natives. Bats are frequently represented

in tlie ancient art and a bat demon appears in several

myths.

Upon the highlands of Mexico the Toltecan deer is

still hunted, together with the wild turkey, that is the

parent of our domestic birds.

The turkey was, in fact, domesticated by the Mexican tribes.

It probably occurred southward over the Guatemalan highlands but is now extinct in this latter region. In the southern part of Central America the place of the turkey as an item of diet is taken by the curassow, a yellow-crested

bird with black plumage. The coppery-tailed trogon,

the famous quetzal, was sacred in ancient times and

is now the emblem of Guatemala. This beautiful bird occurs

only in the cloud cap forest zone

on the high mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala.

and humming birds contributed

their gay plumage to adorn head-

dresses and feather-covered

cloaks. These and many other

birds doubtless flitted about in

the aviary of Moctezuma. The

black vulture, the king vulture

and the harpy eagle are other

conspicuous birds often figured

in the ancient art. The coyote, ocelot, and puma are

the principal beasts of prey on the highlands.

iVmong the characteristic trees of the lowlands may

Fig. 4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as a Demi-god. Dresden Codex.

be mentioned the palm, which occurs in great variety, the amate and ceiba, both of which attain to large size, as well as mahogany, Spanish cedar (which is not a cedar at all but a close relative of the mahogany) , campeche, or logwood, rosewood, sapodilla, and other trees of commerce. Upon the higher mountain slopes are forests of long-leaf pine and of oak. In the desert stretches the cactus is often tree-like and there are many shrubs that in the brief spring become masses of highly colored blossoms.

Some of the principal crops of Mexico and Central America have been introduced from the Old World, including coffee, sugar cane, and bananas. Other crops such as maize, beans, chili peppers, cocoa, etc., are indigenous. Among the native fruits may be mentioned the aguacate, or alligator pear, the mamey, the anona, or custard apple, the guanabina, jocote, and nanse.

History of European Contact. The great area with which we are concerned has been in touch with Europe since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Columbus on his last voyage in 1502 cast anchor at the mouth of the San Juan River, the outlet of Lake Nicaragua. Later he skirted the shore of Costa Rica and Panama and entered the body of water which was named in his honor Bahia del Almirante — Bay of the Admiral. He brought back sensational news of the gold in possession of the natives, which they had told him came from a district called Veragua. After a few years of stormy warfare the Spaniards established themselves firmly in this golden land. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who emerged from the bickering mob as the strongest leader, was the first white man to cross the Isthmus. This he did in 1513, grandiloquently laying claim to the Pacific Ocean and all the shores that it touched in the name of Spain. The crown appointed the greedy and bhick-hearted Pedrarias Davihi governor of Darien and in 1517 he succeeded in having Balboa beheaded on a flimsy charge. Colonization and exploration went forward rapidly. In lolJ) the old city of Panama, now in ruins, was founded. The rich region around the Nicaraguan lakes was discovered by Gil Gonzales Davila and the city of Granada was founded in 1524. The exploration from the southern base came in contact with that from the north in Salvador shortly after this event.

Let us now direct our attention to the conquest of Mexico. Perhaps the Portuguese were the first to sight the mainland of Yucatan in 1493. There is little to prove this except one or two charts or maps made in the first decade of the sixteenth century that show the peninsula in its proper location. In 1511 or 1512 a ship from Darien was wrecked and some of the sailors were cast upon the coast of Yucatan. Most w^ere killed and sacrificed but two survived.

One of these survivors was Geronimo de Aguilar, who later was rescued by Cortez and became his guide and interpreter.

The first accredited voyage of discovery to Mexico was one under the command of Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, which sailed from Cuba in Februarj^ 1517. He coasted the northern and eastern shores of Yucatan. When he attempted to obtain water he was worsted in a serious battle w^ith the Maya Indians. His expedition finally returned to Cuba in a sad plight. The next year Juan de Grijalva set out to continue the exploration of the new land with the stone built cities. He landed at

Fig. 5. Spanish Ship in the Aubin Codex.

Plate II. (a) Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guatemala; (6) A Spanish Church at the village of Camotan on the Road to Copan.

Cozumel Island and took possession. He explored the eastern coast of Yucatan as well as the northern and western ones, discovered the mouth of the large river that bears his name, and proceeded as far as the Island of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz.

The next year Hernando Cortez was sent out by Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to conquer the new land. He landed at Cozumel Island and rescued Geronimo de Aguilar. Then he followed the coast to the mouth of the Grijalva River where he disembarked and fought the important battle of Cintla. the first engagement in the New World in which cavalry was used. After a signal victory Cortez continued his way to Vera Cruz. Here delay and dissension seemed about to break the luck of the invaders.

Although the Mexicans were somewhat inclined to regard the Spaniards as supernatural visitants and to associate their coming with the fabled return of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent, still Moctezuma refused to grant an interview to Cortez. The Totonacan city of Cempoalan opened its gates and became allies of !he invaders. Finally, at the instigation of their stouthearted captain, the Spaniards destroyed their ships on the shore in order to steel their resolution through the impossibility of retreat. Then the little band of 450 white men with their retinue of natives marched towards the highlands. The route led past Jalapa and over the mountains to the fortified city of Tlascala. This city after a skirmish likewise enlisted in the Spanish cause, a course that came easy because Tlascala was a traditional enemy of Tenochtitlan, the ancient Mexico City, and had withstood the attacks of the Aztecs for many years. From here Cortez passed to the sacred city of Cholula where, suspecting treachery, he caused manv of the inhabitants to be massacred.

INTRODUCTION

Fig. 6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moctezuma brings him Gold. Codex Vaticanus 3738.

In the Spanish histories one hears much concerning the omens, the prophecies, and the vain appeals to the gods that became more and more frequent and frantic

as the invaders approached the capitaL Arriving at Ixtapalapan they entered upon the great causeway leading out to the Venice-like city in the lake. Accepting the inevitable, Moctezuma and his nobles met the Spaniards and conducted them to the Palace of Axayacatl, which was prepared for their habitation. This took place in November, 1519. The fears of Moctezuma were soon fulfilled, for he was taken prisoner and held as a hostage of safety in his own capital.