Builder's hardware; a manual for architects, builders and house furnishers

Contents

Page.

CHAPTER XL Locks 168-236

CHAPTER XIII.

CHAPTER I. Metals and Varieties of Finish

BEFORE beginning a study of any portion of the subject, an attempt will be made to consider the metals used for builders' hardware and the various styles of finish possible in connection with them.

Iron is naturally the first material thought of. In its purest form it is known as wrought-iron, a term which is derived from the fact that in the earliest processes the iron was beaten while hot and the impurities forced out by the blows. Also the name indicates, to an extent, the nature of the material, which is yielding and pliable rather than brittle or hard. Wrought-iron is the most available material for constructive metal-work. Nails, bolts, ties, anchors, etc., are more naturally made of wrought-iron than of any other material. Nearly all strap-hinges and the best makes of common butts are made of it ; also, for some forms of common bolts and any article of hardware which permits the metal being punched or pressed into shape, wrought-iron is more suitable than cast, and is much used on account of its superior strength. For finished work, such as knobs, plates, etc., there is very little wrought-iron hardware in the market. A good deal of it is made to order in the shape of ornamental hinges, straps and braces, but the amount of work involved in

Wrought-iron.

Chapter l. producing any given pattern is so largely in excess of what

the same amount of work would produce in other metals that wrought-iron will always be a material for the artist or the amateur. Quite recently, however, there has been made an important discovery which bids fair to bring about a change in the use of this metal. Wrought-iron melts at a very high temperature and it has, therefore, long been practically impossible to cast in the fine moulds ; but by the addition of a small percentage of aluminium to wrought-iron when in a highly-heated condition an alloy is formed which melts at a greatly reduced temperature and gives the metal the degree of fluidity necessary to successful casting. It is claimed that the wrought-iron castings obtained in this way have all the sharpness and clearness of cast brass and at the same time retain the structural qualities of wrought-iron. So far as we can ascertain, cast wrought-iron is not in the market.

Steel. When wrought-iron has mixed with it a proportion of carbon

exceeding 0.5% but not greater than 2% the structural nature of the metal is entirely changed and it becomes known as steel. So far as relates to finished hardware, steel is used only for springs and portions of detail, as the metal does not cast readily, and the surface will not keep bright. In fact, there are the same objections to it that there are to wrought-iron, and almost the only use to which it is now put in hardware is in the manufacture of nails and screws and some brands of butts, which will be described later on.

When iron contains in its composition over 2% of carbon it becomes known as cast-iron, a metal which melts at a comparatively low temperature and is capable of being cast with very sharp lines. It is used a great deal for finishing work, though from its brittle nature and lack of tensile strength it is not. utilized to any great extent for constructive purpose.

Iron hardware is finished in a variety of ways. If left in its natural condition as it comes from the file or hammer, it will rust very speedily, and to prevent this, the most common method is to heat the iron and paint it while hot with linseed

Cast Iron.

METALS AND VARIETIES OF FINISH.

oil, colored with lamp-black and mixed with a quantity of dryer or turpentine. When this coating is dry, the iron is sometimes roasted in a kiln — fired, as it is termed. In this manner the paint seems to be dried into the pores of the metal, and it is left with a smooth, lustreless black surface, capable of resisting the action of the weather for quite a while, though by no means rust-proof.

If, instead of the foregoing, a bath is used composed of linseed oil, and gum-animeor copal, the iron, on being finally fired and polished, presents the appearance of bronze. The tones can be varied to a considerable extent by the addition of color in the shape of powdered alloys of copper and bronze, which are mixed with the oil. The " Tucker bronze," the " Berlin bronze," and the so-called " Boston finish " are all substantially of this nature. Only rarely is a thin film of bronze or composition spread on the iron by the aid of electrolysis. All of the bronze-faced iron hardware is treated with the hot-oil finish just described. The cheapest forms of iron hardware are japanned or even merely coated with ordinary black varnish, the quality of the japanning or varnish depending upon the grade of goods. Japanning is practically indestructible where the iron is not exposed to scratches or rubbing. Hinges and butts are finished in this way more than any other one form of iron hardware, though of late years the best machine lock makers have taken a great deal of care in japanning the outer casings of locks. Fine grades of pulleys are also sometimes sold with japanned frames.

Iron is galvanized by simply immersing in a bath of a melted amalgam of zinc and mercury, containing a little sodium. The iron is first cleaned with sulphuric acid, and before immersion in the bath, it is usually dusted with sal-ammoniac powder. There is not a particle of real galvanic action about the process. It is sometimes thought that the zinc and mercury form a species of alloy with the iron which prevents it from rusting. Galvanizing is, indeed, the best preservative of iron applied in the form of a wash, but the color is not sufficiently pleasing to permit of its being used for nice work.

Chapter I.

Bronzed Iron.

Japan.

Galvanized

Iron.

B UILDERS' HARD WARE.

Chapter I.

Bower-Barff

Process.

Copper and Nickel-plate.

None of the foregoing processes are especially suitable for iron, as they all effectually disguise the nature of the material. There has recently been invented a process for protecting iron from rust, which is in some respects the best thus far devised. It is known as the Bower-Barff process, a term used to indicate two processes by which the surface of the metal is converted into magnetic oxide of iron, in which condition it is absolutely rustless. In the Barff process the metal is simply subjected to the action of superheated steam. This process is peculiarly suitable to wrought-iron and highly finished work. In the Bower process the iron is successively subjected to the action of highly heated air and carbonic-oxide gas. The heat converts the surface of the metal first into red oxide of iron, which is finally reduced to the magnetic oxide by the action of the gas. Owing to the simplicity of the process, it is claimed that its cost is less than that of galvanizing. It may be applied to any kind or style of wrought or cast iron or steel. The surfaces so treated have a perfectly uniform blue-black color. The sharpness of the lines is not affected in the least, and when the work is polished the final color is a lustrous ebony black, such as can be obtained in no other way. This coating of magnetic oxide is so hard that it is removed with difficulty by an emerywheel. A few of the leading dealers are beginning to keep in stock some fine grades of door hardware finished by the Bower- Barff process, but the only parties making use of the patents in the production of builder's hardware are the Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co. This concern is beginning to put in the market quite an extended line of Bower-Barff iron goods.

Iron hardware is also found in the market finished with copper-plating, the raised surface of the pattern being buffed to show the natural copper color, while the background is left black or strongly oxydized. There is quite a variety of goods in this line. Similarly ironwork is nickel-plated, being left with either plain polished surfaces or with polished raised patterns on a black ground. Both nickel and copper plating, are laid on with the aid of a dynamo.

METALS AND VARIETIES OF FINISH.

Brass and bronze are terms which are often confounded when Chapter I. speaking of hardware, though the materials are quite different in composition and are usually dissimilar in appearance. Brass Brass, is an alloy of copper and zinc in varying proportions, the ratio for ordinary purposes being seven of brass to three of zinc. Brass has a light yellowish appearance, is susceptible of a high polish, and can be rendered more ductile by the admixture of a small quantity of lead, which at the same time will diminish the hardness of the alloy. Brass tarnishes very easily if handled or exposed to the weather, and is consequently generally protected by a coating of shellac, which, however, will not entirely prevent it from changing in tone. The color of the brass may be altered slightly by changing the proportions of the metals entering into the alloy, also by treating the finished castings with acids or hot chemicals in the same manner as will be described later for bronze.

Bronze is commonly an alloy of copper and tin in propor- Bronze, tions varying from twelve parts copper to one part tin for metals to be used in the fabrication of mathematical instruments, to two parts copper and one part tin, for telescope or speculum metal. Bronze is sometimes more complex in its nature, lead being added in very slight quantity, and aluminium sometimes replacing the tin. It is less malleable but harder and more fusible than brass, and can be cast with greater ease and perfection. It is oxidized more easily than brass, and because of this it is possible to obtain a greater variety of colors for hardware goods.

Both brass and bronze can be cast with great ease, as compared with iron. The sharpness and delicacy of the casting depends, of course, entirely upon the care bestowed in preparing the pattern and the mould. There is a great difference in the quality of the work turned out by the various manufacturers. In the best of work the mould is formed with very fine sand and is double-faced, that is to say, after the pattern has been imprinted in the sand it is withdrawn, the matrix sprinkled with a still finer sand, and the mould repacked. After that, the moulds

Chapter I. are suspended in the fumes of burning rosin, by which means

they are coated with a fine layer of impalpable soot. When the molten metal is poured into the mould, the soot is pressed evenly into all the minute pores or interstices of the sand, and the resulting casting is so smooth and sharp as often to require but very little hand-chasing.

Brass goods are usually finished in the natural color of the metal with a thin coat of shellac. The same proportions of tin and copper are usually used for all the bronze work of a single firm, though the different manufacturers do not always adopt the same alloy. Bronze is, however, finished in a great variety of styles and colors, all produced essentially as follows :

Surface-finish. The bronze on leaving the casting-room, is trimmed or chased

as may be necessary, and is then immersed for a few moments in a strong acid bath which takes an almost infinitessimal film from the metal, leaving the surfaces entirely free from any oxidations or impurities. The piece of metal is then washed in weak alkali and clear water, to make it perfectly clean. Then the bronze is suspended in a bath of hot acids specially prepared with various chemicals to produce certain changes in the color of the metal. This operation is a very delicate one, requiring the care of trained workmen and a nice appreciation of the proper time to stop the action of the acids, as the appearance of the metal changes very rapidly, turning first from a bright copper red, to a pale gray and then into beautiful shades of browns and rich purples with ultimate dark tones depending upon the composition of the mixture or pickle. When the desired shade is reached the bronze is removed, dried in sawdust, and rubbed down to an even tone on a buffing-wheel. In some designs the raised portions are buffed down until the natural color of the metal appears, the pattern showing on a ground of the darker oxidized tone. Almost any color or shade can be had with bronze by a proper treatment. The Hopkins & Dickinson Manufacturing Co. has even j^nxluced a bronze as dark as iron, and in fact quite similar in appearance. Of course ordinary hardware is simply left the natural color of the metal, when made in plain bronze. It may be said here Chapter I. that plain bronze is as a rule more expensive than figured work. The plain surfaces require a very even grade of metal and smoothness of casting, whereas any imperfections are hidden by patterns, and a cheaper quality of workmanship does not expose itself. In the East there seems to be a decided preference for the plain goods, while in the "West the figured styles are more commonly used. When exposed to rough usage a patterned piece of hardware will in general show wear less than a plain surface.

It must be remembered that the surface finishes produced in the manner just described are not to be considered as permanent. The color is in reality laid on, and is superior to paint or varnish only in that by the means of the hot pickle the color penetrates somewhat deeper than if put on with a brush. Bronze hardware is sure to change in time, no matter how it may be finished, and generally the stronger tones are the least satisfactory in the end, fading out to unpleasant musty hues. Shellac will hold the color, but as soon as it wears off, which it is sure to do on such pieces as knobs and door-handles, the exposed surfaces will turn while the shellacked spots do not. When time can be spared to keep the work polished brightly, a better plan seems to us to be to avoid everything but the natural bronze or brass color, omit the shellac, and polish by hand constantly. This, however, is seldom desirable. We have not yet reached the point where housekeepers will take as much care of the hardware as of the silver.

The treatment of silver-plated bronze is of a similar nature. Oxydized silver The knob or plate is immersed in a silyer-plating bath attached to an electric dynamo. A very few moments suffice for the deposition of the silver. The article is then taken from the bath and treated with hot acids and solutions until any desired degree of oxidation is obtained, when it is dried in saw-dust and the raised patterns slightly brightened on a buffing-wheel. There is at present a great deal of oxidized silver hardware in the market. Most of it is oxidized but slightly, leaving the

Chapter i. raised figures a clear frosty white, but it can be had quite black

if desired. The Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co., has an oxidized silver finish which is as black as old oxidized gun-metal.

Copper-bronze. Several very pleasing styles of finish are obtained by electro-

plating the bronze with copper and then treating with acids. An old-copper color thus obtained is one of the most durable finishes in the market.

Gold-plate. When the cost is not a consideration it is sometimes desirable

to have gold-plated bronze hardware, especially for such things as knobs, which are exposed to constant handling. Gold-plate is no handsomer than some shades of natural bronze, but the gold will not tarnish or be influenced by the weather. Goldplating increases the cost of bronze hardware nearly twenty fold, and being so expensive is executed only for special orders.

Nickel-plate. Nickel-plating is applied more commonly to iron or steel than

to bronze. This finish is but little used for nice work as the nickel will tarnish by exposure to the atmosphere, after which no amount of rubbing will restore its first appearance. Nickel-plating is best adapted for keys, springs, etc.

The following list will give an idea of the great variety of possible treatments of bronze hardware.

FINISHES FOR BRONZE HARDWARE.

I. The Hopkins 3f Dickinson Manufacturing Co., finish: —

A. Statuary. Dark background, light surface.

B. Statuary. Medium dark background and surface. E. Ebony. Suitable only for Plain or Lined Design. E. Statuary. Matted with Green.

G. Gilt or Gold-washed.

H. Gold-plated.

I. Gold-plated. Matted with Enamel, in all colors.

K. Gold-plated. Matted with Silver.

L. Silver-plated.

M. Silver-plated. Matted with Gold.

N. Nickel-plated.

O. Mckel-plated. Matted with Enamel.

P. Nickel-plated. Matted with Gold.

P. Nickel-plated. Matted with Copper.

S. Hand-plated. Silver, suitable only for perfectly plain patterns.

METALS AND VARIETIES OF FINISH.

II. P. Sr F. Corbin, finish: — Chapter I. No. 1. Natural Color, Light Bronze.

No. 2. Chemical Dark Brown or Statuary Bronze.

No. 3. Natural Color on Surface and Black Background.

No. 3j*f. Same as No. 3 Finish, with different arrangement of

colors.

No. 4. Natural Color on Surface and Dark Brown Background. No. 5. Nickel-plated.

No. 7. Nickel-plated Surface with Gold-plated Background. No. 8. Gold-plated.

No. 10. High Polish, Natural Color.

No. 15. Sage Green Background and Natural Color on Surface. No. 16. Terra-cotta Background and Natural Color on Surface. No. 17. Steel Gray Background and Natural Color on Surface. No. 18. Japanese Finish.

No. 19. Oxidized-silver Finish. ' No. 20. Old Brass Finish.

No. 21. Oxidized-Iron Finish.

No. 22. Antique-Copper Finish.

III. The Ireland Manufacturing Co. , finish : — No. 1. Light Bronze.

No. 2. Light Brown.

No. 3. Black Background, Polished Surface. No. 4. Brown Background, Polished Surface. No. 5. Nickel-plated Surface and Background. No. 15. Sage Green Background, Polished Surface. No. 16. Terra-cotta Background, Polished Surface. No. 17. Steel Gray Background, Polished Surface. No. 19. Oxidized-silver.

No. 21. Iron Finish all over.

IV. Nimick Sf Britian, finish : —

No. 1. Bright Surface, Natural Color.

No. 2. Dark Brown Surface and Background.

No. 3. Bright Surface and Black Background.

No. 4. Bright Surface and Brown Background.

No. 5. Bright Surface and Terra-Cotta Background.

No. 6. Bright Surface and Green Background.

No. 7. Nickel-plated Surface and Background.

No. 8. Nickel-plated Surface and Black Background.

No. 12. Gold-plated.

No. 13. Steel Gray Bronze.

No. 14. Old Gold Bronze

No. 15. Oxidized-silver Surface and Background.

Chapter I.

Phosphor-

Bronze.

BUILDERS' HARDWARE.

V. Nashua Loch Co. , finish .

Natural Color, Light Bronze, Polished Surface.

Dark Bronze.

Light Bronze, Polished Surface, with Black Background.

Light Bronze, Polished Surface, with Brown Background.

Nickel-plated, Plain Surface.

No. 6. Nickel-plated Surface, with Black Background

No. 15. Hand Finish.

Besides the finished work, both brass and bronze are used for screws, springs, lock-fittings, etc. A few locks are made with cases of cast-brass and some manufacturers are preparing to use copper-plated iron for the same purpose.

Brass and bronze together are used more than any other one metal for builders' hardware, and are the basis of nearly all door and window fittings.

An important addition to the list of' metals available for hardware purposes has recently been made in the shape of a composition designated as Phosphor-Bronze, an alloy of which the constituent parts are not as yet made public, but which the patentees describe as being a phosphorized alloy of copper and tin. The chemical action of phosphorous on the metals composing the alloy3 is claimed to be two-fold ; on the one hand it reduced any oxides dissolved therein, and on the other it forms with the purified metals a most homogenous and regular combination, the hardness, strength, and toughness of which are completely under control. No other metal combines, in so high a degree as phosphor-bronze, the conditions of toughness. rigidity, hardness and great elastic resistance. Thus far phosphor-bronze has been used in the hardware trade only for screws and for lock-springs. In cities wherein soft coal is used, it has been found that brass springs soon lose their elasticity, owing to the action of free sulphuric acid in the air. Careful tests have shown that phosphor-bronze offers twice as much resistance to corrosion by acid as copper. Further experiments have been made, extending over a period of ten months, to determine its durability, when exposed to the weather, as compared with the best brass wire. After lying on the damp

METALS AND VARIETIES OF FINISH.

ground for that length of time the brass was found to be quite Chapter I. brittle and worthless, while the phosphor-bronze, under exactlysimilar conditions was practically unchanged. It will be readily seen then how valuable a metal this is. Unfortunately its degree of elasticity is less than that of brass, and the springs required for a lock when of phosphor-bronze are sometimes so large as to be impracticable. It is, however, by all odds the best material for springs and is used by the Hopkins & Dickinson Manufacturing Co. in their best grades of locks.

Aluminium has recently appeared as a possible substitute for Aluminium, bronze. It is a metal not unlike lead or platinum in appearance, but is very light, having a specific gravity of 2.56, equal to about one-third that of steel and one-fourth that of silver.

It is very strong, will not tarnish, and is almost indestructible. It melts at a comparatively low temperature and can be cast with sharp lines. Copper, brass, and bronze are improved in strength, color, and durability by the addition of ten per cent of aluminium. It is, however, a metal of the future and is not yet in the hardware market.

CHAPTER n.

NAILS.

Fig. I. Common Nails. (Half Size.)

piate-naiia. % _j TTTHE nails commonly used in connection

A with building operations are too well-known to require any description. They are specifically designated as plate-nails. Up to within a comparatively short time, nails were made by hand almost entirely by women and children, and it is one of the best arguments in favor of the introduction of machinery that the process by which nail-making has been perfected has released a vast multitude from the laborious and wearing occupation, besides giving a great deal better results. The application of machinery to the manufacture of nails is purely an American idea and so recent have been the innovations in connection with this industry that we imagine -many people would be surprised to know the changes which have been made both in the form and in the, character of the ordinary nails, during the past generation. It is only about fifteen years since iron nails were annealed, or capable of clinching without rupture.

In the manufacture of nails the iron is first rolled into plates having a thickness equal to the desired thickness of the nail and a width a little greater than the length of a finished nail. The plates are cut so that the length is at right angles to the grain> the idea being that when the nails are cut out the fibre

NAILS.

"will run lengthwise the nail and thus make up much stronger. Special machinery cuts the nails out in alternate wedge-shaped slices so that the metal is used without any loss. The wedges are picked up, held in a vise, the heads stamped on them, and the finished nails finally dropped out into the casks. The machinery is too complicated to allow of any description here, but the process is very simple and easily understood. Nearly all the common nails are made from plates. Hand nails are still made for special uses such as for horse-shoeing, but the cost is too great and hand-made nails are really no better than those which are made by machinery.

Nails are designated according to their length by pennies. The origin of the designation is generally assumed to be in the old system of weights, the nails being made with as many pennyweights of metal as the number indicates. This designation, of course, no longer holds good, as nails have changed materially both in size and weight, but it is still retained for common convenience and we believe the gradation is uniform with the various manufacturers. The weights run from two to seventy penny and the nails vary in length from one inch to six inches. Six-inch nails and larger are more properly designated as spikes, though the trade recognizes a special form of nail of somewhat stouter proportions, made in several of the larger lengths and technically sold under the name of spikes.

Chapter II. Sizes

Trautwine's " Pochet-Book" page 425, gives the sizes, etc., of nails as follows.

Name.

Length, inches.

No. to pound.

n if

Gd

2£ lOd

3"

BUILDERS' HARDWARE.

Chapter II.

Strength of

nai Is.

Common nails are now very largely made of a low grade of steel, the cost being not over ten cents per hundred pounds more than in wrought-iron.

In regard to the strength of nails, Trautwine also states that boards of oak or pine nailed together by four to sixteen ten-penny common cut-nails and then pulled apart in a direction lengthwise of the boards and across the nails, tending to break the latter in two by a shearing action, averaged from three hundred to four hundred pounds per nail to separate them as the result of many trials. " Johnson's Encyclopaedia " states that the rough surface of a cut-nail adds about twenty per cent to its holding power. The absolute resistance nails will offer to withdrawal varies so widely with circumstances, that no satisfactory results are available.

The sizes of nails used for specific purposes is largely a matter of judgment on the part of the builder, but the common custom is to use four-penny nails for shingling and slating, sixpenny for clapboarding, sixes and eights for finish, eights and nines for flooring, nines and tens for boarding and forty-penny and upwards for framing. Architects sometimes consider it well to specify the sizes of nails to be used for bridging the floor-beams, and for slating, but on general principles we would suppose that a builder who would need any such restrictions would not be a man to employ under any circumstances.

Nails are commonly sold by the cask of one hundred pounds.

Common nails can be had galvanized in all the ordinary sizes. Galvanized nails cost 2^ cents per pound extra.

Canada wrought nails are sold for $16.00 per cask. Clinch nails (annealed) cost from $3.10 per cask for ten-penny, to $4.50 for two-penny. Swedes-iron nails are made from an extra quality of wrought-iron, and are especially used for slating, as they are supposed to stand the weather better than ordinary plate-nails. When made from genuine Swedish iron, four-penny nails are sold at $5.50 per cask. American-iron Swedes are $3.85 per cask. Architects usually find it advisable to specify tinned Swedes-iron nails for roofing-work.

NAILS.

Tinning adds from twenty to fifty per cent to the cost, depending on the number of nails to the pound.

The following are the net prices in the Boston Market.

Prices for Cut-steel Xails, June 20, 1888.

Chapter II.

COMMON, FENCE AND SHEATHING.

per keg.

lOd 2 35

6dandTd : 2 C5

4dlt. and 3d 3 25

3d fine 3 75

BOX.

per keg.

12d and larger $2 75

lOd 2 85

Spikes, of all sizes

FLOORING. per keg.

12d and larger §2 75

lOd 2 85

Sdand'Jd 3 00

Odand 7d 3 15

fine finishing, per keg. 12d and larger $3 15

3 25

3 40

3 55

3 75

3 75

3 75

2d fine 4 20

slating. per keg.

Cd and 7d $2 90

$2 50

Finishing-nails are lighter and thinner than common plate-nails, and besides being made quite smooth, they have very slight heads, to permit of being easily countersunk in the wooden finish. They are made in a number of sizes, from §• to 2-§- inches in length. Next to finishing-nails are the common brads, made with a head in the form of a shank on one side. The sizes are from £ inch to 2 inches in length. Brads are used for small finish, tacking on panel mouldings, etc., the metal being quite thin and the brad driven edgewise of the grain so as not to split the wood. Swedes-iron patent brads are manufactured by the Stanley "Works, and sold at from 18 cents to $1.25 per pound, with a discount. Common brads are listed at the same prices. Clout nails are made with broad, flat heads, and are sold in sizes varying from § inch to 2-J inches in length and

Finishing-nails.

Chapter II.

Wire Nails.

BUILDERS' HARDWARE.

costing from 48 to 13 cents per pound, with a discount. They are used about a building chiefly for tacking gutters, etc. Hungarian nails are a species of large, rounded-headed tacks. They are made from §• inch to 1£ inch long, and average 60 cents per pound, with a discount. Figure 1 illustrates the various special forms of common nails.

All of the foregoing may be classed as common or plate nails. Nails of a very different kind, manufactured from steel wire, have been in use for a number of years in America and for a longer period in Europe, and in both places they have been very favorably received and are fast superseding the common cut-nails for many purposes. The advantages of these over the common nails are many. For the same amount of metal they are much stronger ; they can be driven into very thin boards without splitting them, and can be removed without leaving so unsightly a hole as is usually made by the common nails. Besides this, on account of their superior stiffness they can be driven into very hard wood, where much caution is necessary if common nails are to be used. They are also more easily produced and are handled with less labor. They are manufactured by a simple machine which is automatic in its action, a coil of the wire adjusted to it being cut off in even lengths, headed, pointed and, if necessary, ribbed according to the kind of nail which is desired. The same sizes prevail for these as for the ordinary plate-nails. The following table gives the lengths and number to the pound as listed by the Salem Nail Company, also the net retail prices per hundred pounds in the Boston market.