An inductive study of standards of right

Preface

I WISH to thank Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston, of the University of Illinois; Dr. Frank Blackmar, of the University of Kansas; Professor Alfred Hall-Quest, of the University of Virginia, Professor Homer W. Josslyn, now vs^ith the Carnegie Foundation, and Mr. Walter M. Wolfe for the help that they have been to me in v^riting this book. Dr. Johnston encouraged me to undertake a work of this nature in moral education and made many practical suggestions. Dr. Blackmar gave me valuable hints on the sociology of the subjects treated. Professor Hall-Quest read all the book in manuscript, Professor Josslyn made constructive criticisms and Mr. Wolfe read the proof.

I acknowledge with pleasure the ready and interested response of a wide circle of prominent professional and business men and women who have defined for me their essential problems, the virtues required to meet them, and the advancements now being made in their work. My students have carried on an extensive correspondence in their efforts to obtain information on fundamental moral problems. Some of the papers they have written have been helpful especially those of Miss Mildred Wickes and Mr. Ralph White.

The bibliography at the close of the book has been supplemented by an extensive correspondence. Where the references are few in number, there has been special effort to obtain firsthand information; and where the literature has been plentiful, abundant reference has been made to it. My contribution to the field of moral education lies in the organization of material already given about a plan which is somewhat unique rather than in the discovery of new material. I have made liberal

6 PREFACE

use of the literature covering the wide range of subjects treated in this book.

The plan and purpose of the book are stated in the Introduction.

Contents

I A SURVEY OF THE FIELD.. ii

Life assumes definite forms — The importance of morals — Morality is a growth — The purpose of this book — Special theories needed — A general theory needed — Growth changes many ideals — Religion and morals — The teacher — Method of study — The student — Conclusion.

PART I The School

II THE TEACHER 23

Teaching and the aim of education — The primary task of the teacher — Need of special knowledge — The fields of knowledge — The pupil's point of view — Individual differences — Discipline — The teacher and leadership — Development of personality — Conclusion — Questions.

III THE PUPIL 33

The High School period, the time of adolescence — The moral value of Literature, History, and Manual Work or Household Arts — The teacher — Discipline — Physical training and athletics — Fraternities — Co-education — The family — The community — The school and co-operation — Questions.

PART II The Professions

IV THE PHYSICIAN 47

I Characteristics of the ideal physician, (i) The medical student — (2) Firmness — (3) Secrecy — (4) Sympathy — (5) Notice of dan- 7

8 CONTENTS ger — (6) Counsel — (7) Temperance.

II Routine and other ethical problems, (i) Visits — (2) Consultations — (3) Interference — ^(4) The split fee — (5) Quacks — (6) Charity — (7) Public hygiene — Questions. V THE LAWYER 55

Development of the lawyer class — Classes of lawyers — The attorney and the client — The lawyer and the judge — ^The relation of the attorney to other attorneys — Unjust causes — Confidence — Questions.

VI THE CLERGYMAN 64

Unity of the race — Religion defined — Aim and method of clergyman — Problems : Self-satisfaction of people, men, amusements, Sabbath, social problems, salary — Virtues: purity, honesty, truthfulness, independence, earnestness, sacrifice, charity — Questions.

VII THE EDITOR 72

The public must be pleased — The difficulty of getting accurate news — What constitutes news — Papers suggest scandal and crime — News not specially noted — The policy of the paper — History of the newspaper — Advertising — Advance movements — Questions.

PART III Business

VIII THE BANKER 83

A bank is a business — Safe Loans, credits, character, age of borrower, amount advanced — Retain and secure customers — Increase deposits — Ready money — Speculation — Local business — Reform needed — Virtues — Honesty — Worthy of confidence — Secrecy — Good example — Courtesy — Temperance — Questions.

CONTENTS 9

IX TRADE , 90

Early ideal of trade — The problem in modern trade — Advantages of competition — (a) Permits cut in the price — (b) Regulates the supply — (c) Increased wages — (d) Demands greater intelligence — Child labor — Immigration — Brokers — Competition between capital and capital — Value of character in trade — New ideals in trade — Questions.

X CORPORATIONS 100

Growth of corporations — Differences between corporations — Corporations created by law and individual initiative — Benefits of corporations — Evils of corporations — Control of corporations — Advancement — Questions.

XI LABOR UNIONS no

The growth of labor unions — The causes of labor unions — The advantages of labor unions — Weapons used by labor unions — (a) Strike

— (b) The closed shop — (c) The boycott — Agreements — • Politicians — Advancements — — Questions.

XII INSURANCE 120

Insurance reduces risk — Extent of insurance — Variety of insurance — Business and insurance — The family and insurance — Principles of insurance — Forms of insurance — Insurance promotes business — Insurance agents — Reforms — — Questions.

XIII WOMEN IN BUSINESS 130

The presence of women in industry — The change in the nature of woman's work — Her new environment — (a) Physical conditions

— (b) Economic and moral conditions — Competition with men — The home — The necessity of women in industry — Advancements — Questions.

lO

CONTENTS

PART IV The Government Chapter Page

XIV POLITICAL PARTIES 143

Definition of a political party — The growth of political parties — ^The disadvantages of political parties — The advantages of political parties — Politicians — The rise of parties — Advancements — Questions.

XV MUNICIPAL CONTROL 153

Extent of the interests of a city government — Growth in city control — The water supply — Transportation — Municipal amusements — Education — Tenements — Charities — Police corruption — Taxes — Civic improvement — Control of public utilities — Questions.

PART V The Family

XVI PARENTS 163

Introduction — Marriage — Dangers of family life — Parenthood — ^Three problems in rearing children — Large families — Advancements — Divorce — Questions.

XVII CHILDREN :•••.• ^72

Introduction — The family central in child training — Child morality: (a) Difference in perspective — (b) The child is non-moral (c) The boy and his gang — (d) Temperamental variations (e) Sense of responsibility (f) Obedience (g) Intensity of interest — Moral conceptions; (a) Unity of life, self-control, gratitude^ — The growth of the world — Questions.

PART VI A Social Contrast XVIII THE CITY 185

Cities are great social centers — The difficul-

CONTENTS

II Page

ties of moral living in a city — The city is viewed as superior to the country — City dvi^ellers need a cosmopolitan mind — Strong men in the city are imitated by many — Spencer's conception — Questions.

XIX THE FARM 192

Introduction — The farmer as a neighbor — Illness and accident, fences, dogs, emergencies, roads — Schools — Churches — Government — Business relations — The family — Hired help — Questionable characters — Advancements — Questions.

PART VII Abnormal Conditions XX CHARITY 203

Introduction — Two christian principles noted — Causes of poverty — Three methods of relief — The extent of charity — Philanthropy as a profession — Overlapping of work — Modern charity — Questions.

XXI THE CRIMINAL 212

When persons are judged as criminals — Types of criminals — Criminal madmen — Born criminals — Criminals by habit — ^The occasional criminals — Criminals by passion — Causes of crime — Physical and mental traits of criminals — Methods of treating criminals — Advancements — ^The indeterminate sentence — Asylums for drunkards — Simplification of legal procedure — Group crimes — Questions.

XXII THE SALOON 223

Growth of the Prohibition movement — The internal revenue act — The amount of liquor consumed — The saloon as a social center — The saloon and the defeated — The attitude of the saloon toward law and politics — The saloon and criminals — Reform organizations and measures — The aim of the prohibitionists — Questions.

CONTENTS

PART VIII Psychology

XXIII MENTAL HYGIENE 237

Perception — Attention — Habit — Memory — Thinking — Open-Mindedness — Readings — Action — Questions.

XXIV EMOTIONAL HYGIENE 246

Introduction — Instincts — Healthy feelings — (a) Aesthetic feelings— (b) Intellectual feelings — (c) Personal — James- Lange Theory of emotions — Reason and feelings — Practical suggestions— Questions.

XXV VOLITIONAL HYGIENE 255

The biological conception — Freedom — Meditation — Initiative — The obstructed will — The impulsive will — Habits — Questions.

PART IX Supplementary Topics

XXVI PLAY 267

Play is an instinctive form of action — Play is a means of physical education — Play is an instrument of mental development — The moral life is strengthened by play — There are grades of play — ^The relation of play to work — Amusements and play — High school problems — Jokes — Questions.

XXVII MANNERS ;•;•••. ^76

The reason for manners — Variations in manners-^ — Manners as a means of self expression: Introductions, calls, invitations, hotels, conversations, telephoning, smoking, chaperons, busness, dress — The right spirit — The Boy Scouts of America-— Business success — Questions.

CONTENTS . 13

XXVIII THE FRIEND 285

Uses of the term friend — Conditions that make for unity of life — Conformity to fundamental moral laws — Conformity to the finer social laws — The need of friendship — Friendship as a practical force — The number of friends — Conclusion — Questions.

XXIX CONCLUSION 293

Special tasks require special virtue — All virtues are needed by each person — Three fundamental virtues — Skill — The end of life — The place of pleasure in life — Rewards and penalties — ^The highest type of morality — Questions.

INDEX 317

AN INDUCTIVE STUDY OF STANDARDS OF

RIGHT

Chapter I A Survey Of The Field

Life Assumes Definite Forms, Community life has become organized in certain definite ways. It has churches, homes, a government, business houses, professional men, schools, fashions, manners, etc. When a new community is entered, the same general forms of life present themselves. Of course there will be variations in development, but the common factors can easily be found. Schools are a natural part of a community's life. Business houses are accepted as a matter of fact. Churches are found everywhere; a government is desired by all people, and family life is the normal condition in society. The life of each community has organized itself in stereotyped ways.

The Importance of Morals. The most significant thing about this organized life is not the goods which people possess, the clothes that they wear, or any other external thing. It is the moral life which controls and modifies all forms of activity. There is a constant effort on the part of each person to define for himself what is right and what is wrong. All the concrete acts of life call for such judgments. To ask my neighbor to keep his children in quarantine when they have scarlet fever means — is it right for him to do so. To loan money at twenty per cent, means — is it right to make such a business deal. To charge a patient two hundred dollars for an operation raises the question as to whether it is right.

II

Morality is a Growth, At first it would appear that the moral life is one great jumble of specific requirements which are in no way connected. Because a community at first glance may show no organization, its little understood moral life may seem an indefinite number of unrelated moral requirements. But as social life breaks into groups, as for example the family, the church and the state, so its moral trend appears under certain well-defined forms; for with every organized activity of men, we find a related system of moral requirements growing out of such activity. These moral requirements are of intense interest to all persons. They are never separate from the problems facing men every day. They arise in connection with constant human interests. The doctor finds in the course of his professional career that there are certain things which for him, as a doctor, are right and others which are wrong. *The concensus of opinion about what is right and what is wrong in the medical profession is embodied in a small pamphlet edited by the American Medical Association, and which may be possessed by each physician for his careful guidance.

In banking the question is sometimes raised as to what per cent of interest should be charged on farm loans. A man who would collect an excessive rate of interest would be looked upon as one engaged in a sharp practice, and would be criticised by those who are in the legitimate banking business.

Both in banking and in medicine may be found a large num-

*There has recently been a dispute as to whether or not a doctor should "split a fee," meaning by this, should a surgeon give to a local practitioner who secures for him an operation, a portion of the compensation received for his work. Constantly facing the question whether or not this was a fair practise, the medical profession came to define this act as unjust and to embody its decision in its code of right and wrong, so that any doctor may know the attitude of the most conscientious of his colleagues on this moral question.

A Survey of the Field 13

ber of accepted moral guides which indicate what is right for men in these lines of activity. Moral guides are the results of strenuous efforts in repeated trials to determine that which is right. The same is true of law, business, teaching, parenthood, childhood, amusements, or any other organized form of life. Moral life is a growth and it becomes defined as persons seek to do that which is right in their different lines of activity.

The Purpose of this Book, This book gives a panoramic view of the main activities of living and points out in each of these activities, those great moral principles which men have selected to be their guides to correct conduct. It would be very easy for this book to degenerate into an enumeration of small moral problems with apparently no connection between them. One could take from the field of business enough illustrations to fill a volume, and while from such a mass of material might be drawn some general conclusions as to what is right or wrong in business, there would result a very distorted view of the moral life of the community. It is quite impossible to treat the great mass of small moral problems that arise. The most we can hope to do is: first, to present the most striking problems found in each form of social activity; second, to show the virtues required to meet these difficulties; third, to indicate new ideals that are being formulated; fourth, to draw general conclusions as to the moral principles upon which all men agree; and fifth, to suggest differences which arise because of diverse activities in which men are engaged. No abstract moral theories of what is right or wrong will be presented.

Special Theories Needed. In order that adequate moral guidance may be given students of Ethics, it will be necessary to examine the foundations of our beliefs. When the Family is treated, a theory of family life and of life in general is necessary. When Abnormal Conditions are discussed, an hypothesis concerning the reasons for such conditions and their relation to normal life will be needed. When Government is analyzed, some conclusion as to its nature and its bearing on life must be reached. When Business is studied, a theory of trade and an appreciation of the significance of business problems become necessary. When Mental, Emotional, and Volitional Hygiene are reviewed, an hypothesis concerning what constitutes a true psychology will be desired. In all our discussion a general theory of life will have to be assumed by the writer because of the constant demand of the reader for it.

A General Theory Needed, What general view concerning the world is most true to the facts of nature and life itself? It can be stated briefly by saying that physical nature has a real but subordinate place in the world system in its relation to life, and that the most significant thing about life is growth.

Once admit that there is growth in the world and its rejuvenation becomes a possibility. If things must stay as they are, then fatalism has had the last word. If life may unfold, then progress becomes possible. But does growth necessarily mean progress? What survives in literature? Only the best. What is carried forward in biography but stories of achievement, and records of sins that have prevented forward strides? What science persists but that which has been found to have worth? The survival of ideas depends on their value, and there is enough evidence for us to believe in the survival of what man has found to be beneficial. Yet, if we ask the question, and we certainly have the right, as to whether there is sufficient data to prove conclusively that a right moral order will finally prevail, we must answer that this can hardly be demonstrated. But the testimony of faith may be added to that of reason, although faith is of a different order, and through faith and reason we may say that right will control.

A Survey of the Field 15

By faith IS meant the conviction that right will prevail in the long run although there may not be sufficient evidence now to prove it conclusively. By faith and reason we are able to grasp that which is of infinite worth — the triumph of virtue and the establishment of a permanent moral order. Doubtless all our struggles on behalf of morality are hastening the day when virtue will control. Such a view places a direct responsibility on us to so strive in the present that the right may prevail finally in the social order. If men are able to hold in a broad way to the philosophy of life which has been suggested they can turn with a constructive method of approach to the various problems of morals as they present themselves in the Family, the State, Business, Education, etc.

Growth Changes Many Ideals, The study of moral problems will alter our conceptions of right. Let us take, for example, the old idea of the criminal. The law once judged a criminal as in full possession of his faculties, as a normal person who wilfully committed crime. But criminology has shown that a large per cent, of criminals are physically defective, and it is a serious question whether any of them are normal persons. A study of the facts of life in the field of crime leads to the treatment of the criminal as a defective person. Another illustration will show how the careful investigation of facts defines moral responsibility for us anew. A few years ago comparatively little was said about child labor and the sweat shops. When conditions became known, as they bore on physical health and social welfare, agitation began in earnest and measures were taken to alter these conditions. A careful consideration of the facts in the case has altered the attitude of our nation toward the liquor business. As its detrimental influence on health, business, and politics became thoroughly understood, it ceased to be popular. In the past, big business was often conducted with little regard for the l6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right

public welfare. Money barons thought that any interference with their business on the part of the State was not justified. Yet today there is a growing sentiment that there should be more social control of unrestrained individualism in business. So any topic in this book might show how the good is being carried forward and how new ideals of right conduct are rising, defining more sharply than ever before what constitutes moral obligation. Now, if our moral life is a development, it stands to reason that the first attempts to determine right will be unreliable when compared with the mature standards determined by long series of efforts, and it would be unfair to judge by present standards a man who lived in an earlier period when moral ideals were not so carefully formulated. To judge any individual you must take into consideration the day in which he lived.

Religion and Morals. While the fields of religion and morals are not co-terminous, yet they have always been recognized as vitally connected. Religion has given to morality breadth, permanence, and hope. Religion lessens the isolation of our tasks, grounds them in a far-reaching moral order, and gives promise that the outcome in the future will be well. At what point does religion enter into the problems and ideals defined in this book? Wherever definite moral standards have been formulated under the influence of religion. Our conception of indiscriminate giving as charity has been largely determined by religion. The newer conception of charity as an aid to self-support has replaced the older conception in part and it has in it an element of religion. The gradual decay of the opinion that slavery is justifiable may be largely traced to the influence of religion. The teaching of religion has been noted in this book wherever it has entered public life and has caused people to formulate safer and nobler codes of conduct. But no special form of religion has been promulgated throughout

A Survey of the Field 17

the following pages. What has been done has been rather to indicate the actual moral ideals of society as now formulated. It will suffice to suggest in this opening chapter that many of our moral standards owe their present form, in part, to religion. Another volume could well be written, pointing out the agreements and disagreements of our present moral standards with religion.

The Teacher, In teaching this book the instructor will find it needful to be a student together with his pupils. He should take the place of an advanced pupil, consider with his class the evidence gathered on any moral question, and formulate with them what seems to be right or wrong. There are so many disputed points and so many places in which there is no agreement on moral matters, that it is unfair on the part of the student to require a complete and definite answer to all questions. The teacher must be a learner; he should gather all available material upon the subject under discussion and, with the evidence in view, according to his best judgment, formulate a guide to conduct. This may not satisfy those who want a complete moral guide, one as definite as is available in mathematics. Yet the teacher should not suppose that there is total disagreement of judgment concerning right conduct. There is a concensus of opinion in every line of activity, a certain core of recognized truth which the teacher should discover and present as the settled convictions of those engaged in that work. In other words, the teacher should bring before the students the outstanding problems of a profession or social activity and the recognized solution of those problems, together with the advances which have been made to the present time. He should not be engrossed with the minor uncertain problems still unsettled. To do so is purely wasteful inasmuch as there is much of recognized moral worth in any regular field of human endeavor.

Method of Study. The text and the questions together present some phase of life in such a way that its significant problems may be discerned and the virtues necessary to meet them appreciated. It would be well for the teacher to send the pupils with note books to men engaged in the kind of work which they may be studying at the time, and have them bring to the class the results of their interviews. For instance, the questions on the lawyer could be divided into four or five sections, the lawyers in the community assigned to four or five or more students and their written answers read in class. It has been a common practice for the author to require his students to write to different lawyers, asking them three questions:^

What are the most important problems you face as a lawyer?

What virtues are required to meet these problems?

What moral developments are taking place in your profession?

If each member of the class were required to write to five lawyers or even more, and the material collected and reviewed in class with the teacher, it would quickly become evident what lawyers consider their outstanding problems, their necessary virtues, and the lines of progress in their profession. This can and should be done with almost every general topic. It needs to be repeated that this book is not an attempt to impose on the students a preconceived moral system. It is an effort to induce them to view moral life in a scientific way, to appreciate its problems after a consideration of the factSj and to draw for themselves conclusions as to what is right and what is wrong. An excellent way to teach Ethics would be to have the students consult with different persons until they have gathered sufficient data for valid conclusions. It would be better still if they could pass through the actual moral experiences of men in life's different activities, at the same time being taught by those who have met successfully vital problems. But of

A Survey of the Field I9

course this is impossible. The next best thing is to do as has been suggested, — consult with those who have faced certain problems and have solved them with satisfaction to themselves.

The Student, A certain amount of modesty should characterize the student who begins the study of The Right. He has been taught by society concerning a great many matters and has a fund of moral information, but he does not know the problems which face the people in the different professions, neither does he feel deeply the virtues necessary to meet these difficulties. Yet it is of superlative importance that every young person be keenly aware of what is expected of him in society. The moral life is of supreme significance to every individual, and the manner in which he answers the questions as to what is right or wrong will determine more than any other one thing his happiness and his success. The student should come to this study with an earnest desire to discover for himself what will enable him to be a man of worth to his fellows and deserving of self-respect. Approaching the study of these problems with an open mind and an earnest purpose, he will find experienced people willing to co-operate with him and guide him in his moral life. If he shows an arrogant spirit and gives the impression that he has these problems solved, he will get little help from those who really want to aid him.

Conclusion. The purpose of this book is avowedly practical in that through investigation it attempts to give guidance in life's fundamental moral problems. Through repeated efforts to discern what is right, the student will gain moral power and moral insight, so that in facing new situations he may reach more satisfactory conclusions than if he had not had this practical discipline. Naturally a theory of moral life will formulate itself in the student's mind as he works from one problem to another, and he will discern three things: First, that settled moral convictions are products of human experience; second, that a concensus of opinion is usually the best moral guide; and third, that the moral life is a growth, and that, as we are loyal to the best today, we make it possible for those who follow to be loyal to a better standard in the future.

Part I The School Chapter 11

Teaching and the Aim of Education, Education is of two kinds: that which is given hy the school and that which is acquired from environment without regular instruction, from parents, friends and business associates. The latter is practical but takes a long time to gain, while the great advantage of the former is, that valuable information may be given in systematized form, largely without undesirable experiences accompanying it, and a great amount of time may thus be saved. In giving to society this formal knowledge the teacher inevitably meets certain problems. The teacher^s task will be greatly simplified if he knows just what is the aim of education. Is it bread and butter, or culture, or knowledge, or harmonious development, or morality, or social efficiency or any combination of these? This uncertainty as to the aim of education, coupled with the fact that the fruits of teaching are largely mental and hence unseen, may discourage some who want to see immediate results. Many teachers find it disheartening not **to see the chips fly.'' Yet there are many important aims, such as health, citizenship and industrial efficiency, that may be realized through training. These are definite and require certain obtainable knowledge for their realization. The material that will be used in a given course of study will depend largely on the aim of education. But for most teachers the subjects are designated by State courses of study, and the problems which come to them are more particularly those that arise in connection with this assigned work.

The Primary Task of the Teacher, The primary work of the teacher is to train the student to think and to act correctly. Many pupils are alike in repeating what the book says or what they think the teacher desires. If they are asked "What is your opinion?'* they often reply **I don't know/' They never expect to have views of their own and they are startled into confusion by a question which requires thinking on their part. This power to weigh and consider statements and from the evidence to judge of the truth in a sane and balanced way, is what should be cultivated in pupils. Yet many teachers have no other ideal than hearing what the pupil can remember from the book. If the teacher cannot weigh and balance the worth of the various ideas in a subject, certainly the pupil will never be trained by such a person to be an efficient thinker. It is not well for a teacher to look at a book and ask a question, then look at the book and ask another question and so on throughout the recitation. Such a one might be called a "book teacher." The only purpose of the text is to open up some field of truth. Knowledge in any department is so infinitely varied and attractive that it never has been stated in the best possible way in the book. The teacher who gives the student the feeling that he is dealing with facts that are to be found in the real world without, and that the knowledge that he is imparting interprets either nature or life, is the real teacher. Teachers are called to interpret common daily experiences — the book is only another person discussing the same material — and the world of reality about which the book speaks should be so in evidence to the teacher that he can lay the book aside and convince the students of the worth of some natural phenomenon or product of thought.