Ancient times, a history of the early world

Front matter

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Part I. The Earliest Europeans

I. Early Mankind in Europe

1. Earliest Man's Ignorance and Progress i

2. The Early Stone Age 5

3. The Middle Stone Age 9

4. The Late Stone Age • . . . . 14

PART 11. THE ORIENT

II. The Story of Egypt: the Earliest Nile-Dwellers AND THE Pyramid Age

5. Egypt and its Earliest Inhabitants 35

6. The Pyramid Age (about 3000 to 2500 B.C.) 49

7. Art and Architecture in the Pyramid Age 68

III. The Story of Egypt : the Feudal Age and the Empire

8. The Nile Voyage and the Feudal Age 74

9. The Founding of the Empire 80

10. The Higher Life of the Empire 86

11. The Decline and Fall of the Egyptian Empire .... 93

12. The Decipherment of Egyptian Writing by Champollion 97

IV. Western Asia : Babylonia

13. The Lands and Races of Western Asia 100

14. Rise of Sumerian Civilization and Early Struggle of

Sumerian and Semite 107

15. The First Semitic Triumph: the Age of Sargon . . . 122

16. Union of Sumerians and Semites : the Kings of Sumer

and Akkad 126

17. The Second Semitic Triumph: the Age of Hammurapi

and After 128

V. The Assyrians and Chaldeans

18. Early Assyria and her Rivals 140

19. The Assyrian Empire (about 750 to 606 B.C.) 151

20. The Chaldean Empire : the Last Semitic Empire . . . 164 xii Ancient Times

VI. The Medo-Persian Empire

21. The Indo-European Peoples and their Dispersion . . 171

22. The Aryan Peoples and the Iranian Prophet Zoroaster 176

23. Rise of the Persian Empire : Cyrus 179

24. The Civilization of the Persian Empire (about 530

25. PersianDocumentsandtheDecipherment of Cuneiform 189

26. The Results of Persian Rule and its Religious Influence 194

VII. The Hebrews and the Decline of the Orient

27. Palestine and the Predecessors of the Hebrews there 197

28. The Settlement of the Hebrews in Palestine and the

United Hebrew Kingdom 200

29. The Two Hebrew Kingdoms 206

30. The Destruction of the Hebrew Kingdoms by Assyria

and Chaldea 210

31. The Hebrews in Exile and their Deliverance by the

Persians 213

32. Decline of Oriental Leadership ; Estimate of Oriental

Civilization 217

Part III. The Greeks

VIII. The Dawn of' European Civilization and the Rise OF THE Eastern Mediterranean World .

33. The Dawn of Civilization in Europe 221

34. The ^gean World : the Islands 225

35. The ^gean World : the Mainland 236

36. Modern Discovery in the Northern Mediterranean and

the Rise of an Eastern Mediterranean World . . . 244

IX. The Greek Conquest of the ^^gean World

37. The Coming of the Greeks 252

38. The Nomad Greeks make the Transition to the Settled

Life 259

X. Greek Civilization in the Age of the Kings

39. The iEgean Inheritance and the Spread of Phoenician

Commerce . 263

40. The Phoenicians bring the First Alphabet to Europe 270

41. Greek Warriors and the Hero Songs 273

42. The Beginnings and Early Development of Greek

Religion 276

Contents xiii

XI. The Age of the Nobles and Greek Expansion in THE Mediterranean

43. The Disappearance of the Kings and the Leadership

of the Nobles 282

44. Greek Expansion in the Age of the Nobles .... 287

45. Greek Civilization in the Age of the Nobles .... 290

XII. The Industrial Revolution and the Age of the Tyrants

46. The Industrial and Commercial Revolution .... 295

47. Rise of the Democracy and the Age of the Tyrants . 301

48. Civilization of the Age of the Tyrants 307

XIII. The Repulse of Persia

49. The Coming of the Persians .... 322

50. The Greek Repulse of Persians and Phoenicians . . 328

XIV. The Growing Rivalry bp:tween Athens and Sparta,

and the Rise of the Athenian Empire

51. The Beginnings of the Rivalry between Athens and

Sparta 336

52. The Rise of the Athenian Empire and the Triumph

of Democracy 339

53. Commercial Development and the Opening of the

Struggle between Athens and Sparta 344

XV. Athens in the Age of Pericles

54. Society, the Home, Education and Training of Young

Citizens 350

55. Higher Education, Science, and the Training gained

by State Service , 357

56. Art and Literature 362

XVI. The Struggle between Athens and Sparta and THE Fall of the Athenian Empire

57. The Tyranny of Athens and the Second Peloponne-

sian War 37S

58. Third Peloponnesian War and Destruction of the

Athenian Empire 385

XVII. The Final Conflicts among the Greek States

59. Spartan Leadership and the Decline of Democracy . 394

60. The Fall of Sparta and the Leadership of Thebes . 402 xiv Ancient Times

XVIII. The Higher Life of the Greeks from the Death OF Pericles to the Fall of the Greek States 6t. Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting 406

62. Religion, Literature, and Thought 413

XIX. Alexander the Great

63. The Rise of Macedonia . , . . = 425

64. Campaigns of Alexander th.: Great . . . , . . - ; . 429

65. International Policy of Alexander : its Personal Con-

sequences 438

Part IV. The Mediterranean World In The Hellenistic Age And The Roman Republic

XX. The Heirs of Alexander

66. The Heirs of Alexander's Empire 445

67. The Decline of Greece 450

XXI. The Civilization of the Hellenistic Age

68. Cities, Architecture, and Art 453

69. Inventions and Science ; Libraries and Literature . 466

70. Education, Philosophy, and Religion 475

71. Formation of a Hellenistic World of Hellenic-Oriental

Civilization; Decline ofCitizenship and the City-State 481

XXII. The Western Mediterranean World and the Roman Conquest of Italy

73. Earliest Rome 492

74. The Early Republic : its Progress and Government . 499

75. The Expansion of the Roman Republic and the Con-

quest of Italy 511

XXIII. The Supremacy of the Roman Republic in Italy

and the Rivalry with Carthage

76. Italy under the Early Roman Republic 520

77. Rome and Carthage as Commercial Rivals .... 524

XXIV. The Roman Conquest of the Western Mediter-

ranean World

78. The Struggle with Carthage : the Sicilian War, or

First Punic War 533

79. The Hannibalic War (Second Punic War) and the

Destruction of Carthage , . 535

Contents

XV

XXV. World Dominion and Degeneracy

80. The Roman Conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean

World 549

81. Roman Government and Civilization in the Age of

Conquest 553

82. Degeneration in City and Country 563

XXVI. A Century of Revolution and the End of the Republic

83. The Land Situation and the Beginning of the

Struggle between Senate and People 574

84. The Rise of One-Man Power: Marius and Sulla . 578

85. The Overthrow of the Republic : Pompey and

Cassar 584

86. The Triumph of Augustus and the End of the

Civil War 596

Part V. The Roman Empire

XXVII. The First of Two Centuries of Peace: the Age OF Augustus and the Successors of his Line

87. The Rule of Augustus and the Beginning of Two

Centuries of Peace (30 B.C.-14 A. D.) 601

88. The Civilization of the Augustan Age 607

89. The Line of Augustus and the End of the First

Century of Peace (14 A. D.-68 A.D.) 617

XXVIII. The Second Century of Peace and the Civilization of the Early Roman Empire

90. The Emperors of the Second Century of Peace (be-

ginning 69 A.D.) 625

91. The Civilization of the Early Roman Empire: the

Provinces 636

92. The Civilization of the Early Roman Empire : Rome 649

93. Popularity of Oriental Religions and the Spread of

Early Christianity 659

94. The End of the Second Century of Peace .... 664

XXIX. A Century of Revolution and the Division of THE Empire

95. Internal Decline of the Roman Empire ..... 667 xvi Ancient Times

97. The Roman Empire an Oriental Despotism .... 677

98. The Division of the Empire and the Triumph of

Christianity 682

XXX. The Triumph of the Barbarians and the End of THE Ancient World

99. The Barbarian Invasions and the Fall of the Western

Empire 688

100. The Triumph of the Roman Church and its Power

over the Western Nations 698

10 1. The Final Revival of the Orient and the Forerunners

of the Nations of Modern Europe 705

102. Retrospect 713

INDEX 733

LIST OF COLORED PLATES

PLATE PAGE

I. Restoration of an Egyptian Vase of the

Pyramid Age. (After Borchardt) . Frontispiece

II. Glazed Brick Lion from the Wall of Nebuchadnezzar's Palace. (After Koldewey) . 164

III. The Plain of Argos and the Sea viewed

from the Castle of Tiryns 276

IV. A Corner of the Parthenon 380

V. The Temples and Palms of Phil^ .... 444

VI. Greeks and Persians hunting Lions with

VII. The Greek Theater at Taormina, with its

Roman Additions 560

VIII. One of the Oldest Surviving Portrait

Paintings 654

LIST OF MAPS

PAGES

Map of Europe in the Ice Age '. . . 8

Egypt and the Nile Valley to the Second Cataract 36-37

Egyptian Thebes 81

The Ancient Oriental World and Neighboring Europe before the

Rise of the Greeks loo-ioi

Map of Sumer and Akkad, later called Babylonia 106

Map of Nineveh ' 154

Map of Babylon in the Chaldean Age 165

Sequence Map showing Expansion of the Oriental Empires for a

Thousand Years (from about 1500 to 500 B.C.) 1S8-189

I. Egyptian Empire (Fifteenth Century B.C.) II. Assyrian Empire (Seventh Century B.C.)

III. Median and Chaldean Empires (Sixth Century B.C.)

IV. Persian Empire (500 B.C.)

Palestine the Land of the Hebrews 196-197

Sequence Map of the Eastern Mediterranean World from the Grand Age of Cretan Civilization (about 1500 B.C.) to the Conquest of the ^gean by the Greeks 252-253

I. Pre-Greek Civilization in the Eastern Mediterranean World till 1500 B.C.

II. The Eastern Mediterranean and the Greek Conquest of the ^^gean World (1500-1000 B.C.) and the Spread of Phoenician Commerce after 1200 B.C.

Greece in the Fifth Century B.c 264-265

Colonial Expansion of the Greeks and Phoenicians down to the

Sixth Century B.c 288-289

Map of the World by Hecataeus (517 B.C.) 319

Sequence Map showing Western Limits of the Persian Empire and the Greek States from the Persian Wars (beginning 490 B.C.) to the Beginning of the Second Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.) 344-345

I. Western Limits of the Persian Empire and the Greek States in the Persian Wars (490-479 B.C.) II. The Athenian Empire and the Greek States at the Opening of the Second Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.) xviii

List of Maps xix

PAGES

Central Greece and Athens 352-353

I. Attica and Neighboring States II. Athens

Map of the World according to Herodotus 360

Plan of the Siege of Syracuse . 386

Plan of the Battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) 403

Empire of Alexander the Great 436-437

Sequence Map showing the Three Empires of Alexander's Successors from the Third Century B.C. to their Decline at the Coming of the Romans after 200 b. c 448-449

I. The Three Empires of Alexander's Successors in the Third Century B.C.

II. The Three Empires of Alexander's Successors Early in the Second Century B.C.

Map of the World according to Eratosthenes (200 B.C.) .... 472 Italy and Adjacent Lands before the Supremacy of Rome . 484-485 Sketch Map showing Four Rival Peoples of the Western Mediterranean: Etruscans, Italic Tribes, Greeks, and Carthaginians 489

Early Latium 493

Map of Early Rome showing the Successive Stages of its Growth 500

Four Sketch Maps showing Expansion of Roman Power in Italy 516

I. Italy at the Beginning of the Roman Republic (about 500 B.C.)

II. Roman Power during the Samnite Wars (down to 300 B.C.)

III. Roman Power after the Samnite Wars (290 B.C.)

IV. Roman Power after the War with Pyrrhus (275 B.C.)

The Route and Marches of Hannibal, from 218 to 203 B.C. . . . 538

Plan of the Battle of Cannae 540

Sequence Map showing the Expansion of the Roman Power from the Beginning of the Wars with Carthage (264 B.C.) to the Death of Caesar (44 B.C.) 552-553

I. Roman Power at the Beginning of the Wars with Carthage (264 B.C.) II. Expansion of Roman Power between the Sicilian and Hannibalian Wars with Carthage (241-218 b.c.)

III. Expansion of Roman Power from the End of the Hannibalian Wars

to the Beginning of the Revolution (201-133 B.C.)

IV. Expansion of Roman Power from the Beginning of the Revolu-

tion to the Death of Caesar (133-44 B.C.)

Plan of the Battle of Pharsalus 593

Map of Rome under the Emperors , . . . , ^ 62?

XX Aficient Times

PAGES

Sequence Map showing Territorial Gains and Losses of the Roman Empire from the Death of Caesar (44 B.C.) to the Death of Diocletian (305 a.d.) , . . 636-637

I. Expansion of the Roman Empire from the Death of Caesar to the End of the Two Centuries of Peace (44 B.C.-167 a.d.) II. The Roman Empire under Diocletian (284-305 a.d.) showing the Four Prefectures

Map of the World by the Astronomer and Geographer Ptolemy

(Second Century a.d.) 657

The Roman Empire as organized by Diocletian and Constan-

Migrations of the Germans 692-693

Europe in the Time of Charlemagne 700-701

Mohammedan Conquests at their Greatest Extent 709

Section i. Earliest Man's Ignorance and Progress

We all know that our fathers and mothers never saw an i. Man's aeroplane when they were children, and very few of them had fentkm and ever seen an automobile. Their fathers lived durins: most of acquirement

^ oi the posses-

their lives without electric lights or telephones in their houses, sions of life

Their grandfathers, our great-grandfathers, were obliged to

make all long journeys in stagecoaches drawn by horses, and

some of them died without ever having seen a locomotive.

One after another, as they have been invented, such things

have come and continue to come into the lives of men.

Each device grew out of earlier inventions, and each would 2. Ancient have been impossible without the inventions which came in story'of^ before it. Thus, if we went back far enous^h, we would reach a ^^"^!^^^

' ° ' achievements

point where no one could build a stagecoach or a wagon, because followed byno one had invented a wheel or tamed a wild horse. Earlier rivalries still there were no ships and no travel or commerce by sea. There were no metal tools, for no one had ever seen any metal. Without metal tools for cutting the stone there could be no fine buildings or stone structures. It was impossible to write, for no one had invented writing, and so there were no books nor any knowledge of science. At the same time there were no schools or hospitals or churches, and no laws or government. This book is intended to tell the story of how /

3. Man began with nothing and with no one to teach him

4. Savages of to-day show us the Hfe of earhest man ; the Tasmanians and what they had failed to learn

5. The Tasmanians and what they had learned mankind gained all these things and built up great nations which struggled among themselves for leadership, and then weakened and fell. This story forms what we call ancient history.

If we go back far enough in the story of man, we reach a time when he possessed nothing whatever but his hands with which to protect himself, satisfy his hunger, and meet all his other needs. He must have been without speech and unable even to build a fire. There was no one to teach him anything. The earliest men who began in this situation had to learn everything for themselves by slow experience and long effort, and every tool, however simple, had to be invented.

People so completely uncivilized as the earliest men must have been, no longer exist on earth. Nevertheless, the lowest savage tribes found by explorers at the present day are still leading a life very much like that of our early ancestors. For example, the Tasmanians, the people whom the English found on the island of Tasmania a century or so ago, wore no clothing; they had not learned how to build a roofed hut; they did not know how to make a bow and arrows, nor even to fish. They had no goats, sheep, or cows; no horses, not even a dog. They had never heard of sowing seed nor raising a crop of any kind. They did not know that clay would harden in the fire, and so they had no pottery jars, jugs, or dishes for food.

Naked and houseless, the Tasmanians had learned to satisfy only a very few of man's needs. Yet that which they had learned had carried them a long way beyond the earliest men. They could kindle a fire, which kept them warm in cold weather, and over it they cooked their meat. They had learned to construct very good wooden spears, though without metal tips, for they had never heard of metal. These spears, tipped with stone, they could throw with great accuracy, and thus bring down the game they needed for food, or drive away their human enemies. They would take a flat stone and, by chipping off the edges to thin them, they could make a rude knife with which to skin and cut up the game they killed. They were also very deft in weaving cups, vessels, and baskets of bark fiber. Above all, they had a simple language, with words for all the ordinary things they used and. did every day.

It was only after several hundred thousand years of savage life arnd slow progress that the earliest prehistoric men of Europe reached and passed beyond a stage of savagery like that of the Tasmanians just described. The Europe which formed the home of these earliest men was very different from what it is today. In the shadow of the lofty primeval forests which fringed the streams and clothed the wide plains, the ponderous hippopotamus wallowed along the shores of the European rivers. The fierce rhinoceros, with a horn three feet in length, charged through the

heavy tropical growth on their banks, and vast elepha its, with shaggy hair two feet long (Fig. lo, 7), wandered through the jungles behind. Myriads of bison and wild horses grazed on the uplands, and the broken glades sheltered numerous herds of deer. A moist atmosphere, warm and enervating, vibrant with

6. Prehistoric Europe its climate and animals

Fig. I. Fire-making without

Matches, by Modern Natives

OF Australia

The outfit is very simple, consisting merely of a round, dry stick placed upright with the lower end in a hole in a dry tree-trunk lying on the ground. By turning the stick rapidly between both hands the friction finally generates sufficient heat to produce flame (§ 8)

7. Life and haunts of the earliest European ; his wooden weapons and tools the notes of many tropical birds, pervaded this prehistoric European wilderness stretching far across Europe.

With nothing to cover his nakedness, the early savage of Europe roamed stealthily through these tropical forests, seeking his daily food among the roots, seeds, and wild fruits wherever he could find them, and listening with keen and eager ear for the sound of small game which he might be able to lay low with his rough wooden club.

Doubtless he often fled in terror as he felt the thunderous tread of the giant animals of the forest or caught dim glimpses of colossal elephants plunging through the deep vistas of the jungle.

At night the hunter slept wherever the game had led him, after cutting up the flesh of his prey with a wooden knife and devouring it raw. Not knowing how to

Fig. 2. A Group of North American

Indians making Flint Weapons. (After

Holmes)

The farthest Indian is prying loose a large flint stone. This is the raw material, which is then taken by the middle Indian, who crashes it down upon a rock and shatters it into fragments. One of these fragments is then taken by the nearest Indian, who holds it in his left hand while he strikes it with a stone in his right hand. These blows flake off pieces of flint, and the Indian is so skillful that he can thus shape a flint hatchet. This process of shaping the flint by blows (that is, by peixiissioii) was the earliest and rudest method and produced the roughest stone tools. In the course of thousands of years two improvements followed — chipping the edge hy pressure (Fig. 5) and sharpening the edg&hy grinding {Y\g. 16, j')

make a fire to ward off the savage beasts, he lay trembling in the darkness at the roar of the mighty saber-tooth tiger.

At length, however, he learned to know fire, perhaps finding 8. Man it in his jungle haunts when the lightning kindled a forest fire, kindle fire or fearing it from afar as he viewed the terrible volcanoes ^^^ "^^ ^*°"® along the Mediterranean. It was a great step forward when he at last learned to produce it himself with his whirl-stick (Fig. i). He could then cook his food, warm his body, and harden the tip of his wooden spear in the fire. But his dull wooden knife he could not harden, and he sometimes found a broken stone and used its ragged edge. When he learned to shape the stone to suit his needs (Fig. 2), and thus to produce a rude tool or weapon, he entered what_we_n^_w_^njthe_Siojae_..A^^ more - than fifty thousand years ago.

From this point on we can hold in our hands the very stone 9. Career of tools and implements with which early men maintained them- traceaSe"in selves in their long strus^gle to survive. By the lone: trail of surviving

^ ^° y & stone imple-

stone implements which they left behind them we can follow ments and them and tell just how far they had advanced in the succes- of his hands sive stages of their upward career ; for these stages are revealed to us by their increasing skill in working stone and in other industries which they gradually learned. We can distinguish, in the examples of their handiwork which still survive, three successive ages, which we may call the Early Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, and the Late Stone Age. Let us now observe man's progress through these three ages, one after the other.

Section 2. The Early Stone Age

Until a short time ago it was supposed that human history 10. Modem

was comparatively brief. Moreover, everyone took it for man's^vast^

granted that the earlier period of man's past had left no sur- ^^^ "'^'^'J.

viving traces. An old letter written in London two hundred ago years ago (17 14) tells how a certain apothecary discovered the bones of an elephant in a gravel-pit near London, and. near

A7icient Times

II. The

Early Stone Age hunter and his fist-hatchet

Fig. 3. A Flint Fist-hatchet OF THE Early Stone Age

Rough flint flakes older than the fist-hatchet still survive to show us man's earliest efforts at shaping stone.

But the fist-hatchet is the earliest well-finished type of tool produced by man.

The original is about 9 inches long, and the draw ing reduces it to less than one third. Either end might be used as the cutting edge, but it was usually grasped in the fist by the narrower part, and never had any handle. Handles of wood or horn do not appear until much later (cf. Fig. 16, .^-5).

Traces of use and wear are sometimes found on such fist-hatchets by, the flint head of a spear. Although this letter was soon afterward published, with a drawing of the spearhead, no attention was paid to it and it was quickly forgotten.

For over a century similar discoveries, both in England and on the Continent, met with the same fate.

It was not until some fifty years ago, after the evidence had been available for a century and a half, that the eyes of scientific men were at last opened to the fact of the enormously long sojourn of man upon the earth.

Long-continued excavations, especially in France, have furnished thousands of stone tools which reveal to us the progress of the Early Stone Age hunter after he had found that he could chip stones. By studying the collections of such stone tools now in the museums of Europe we can see how the early man gradually outgrew a variety of rudely chipped stones and finally produced a successful stone implement (Fig„ 3).

This he used for almost everything.

It was from eight to ten inches long, narrow above and wider below, and sufficiently sharp to enable him to cut the roots and branches which he used for food, to shape his wooden fire-kindling outfit (Fig. i), and to hew out his heavy wooden club.

Early Mankind ifi Europe 7

This stone implement we call a '' fist-hatchet," because it was grasped in the fist, usually by the narrow end, for the hunter had not yet discovered how to attach a handle. These fist-hatchets have been found in many places in Europe as well as in other parts of the world. It is the earliest widely made and used human device which has survived to our day.

Perishing probably in great numbers, as his hazardous life 12. Limitawent on, this savage hunter of prehistoric Europe continued Early °Stone for thousands of years the uncertain struggle for survival. He ^^e man slowly improved his rough stone fist-hatchet, and he probably learned to make additional implements of wood, but these have of course rotted and perished, so that we know nothing of them. Of all the later possessions of man he had not yet one. The wide grainfields and the populous and prosperous communities of later Europe were still many thousands of years distant, in a future which it was even more impossible for him to foresee than our own now is for us. Single-handed he waged war upon all animals. There was not a beast which was not his foe. There was as yet no dog, no sheep or fowl, to which he might stretch out a kindly hand. The ancestor of the modern dog was then either the jackal or the fierce wolf of the forest, leaping upon the primitive hunter unawares, and those beasts which were the ancestors of our modern domestic animals were either not yet in existence in Europe or, like the horse, still wandered the forests in a wild state (cf . Fig. 1 2).

At length the Early Stone Age hunter began to notice that 13. Coming the air of his forest home was losing its tropical warmth. Geologists have not yet found out why, but the climate grew colder, and, as the ages passed, the ice, which all the year round still overlies the region of the North Pole and the summits of the Alps, began to descend. The northern ice crept farther and farther southward until it covered England as far south as the Thames. The glaciers of the Alps moved down the Rhone valley as far as the spot where now the city of Lyons .stands (see map, p. 8). On our own continent of North America

I \ Regions covered by Ice I ■•/:--l " " " ^""8

Interval

Human bones found as deep as

80 feet below the surface

of the earth

Not less than 50,000 years

Sketch Map of Europe in the Ice Age and Diagram SHOWING Four Successive Descents of the Ice

During the Ice Age the ice advanced and retreated four times; that is, there were four periods of cold, each followed by a long interval of warmth. These periods of cold and warmth are indicated by the falling (cold) and the rising (warmth) of the wavy line in the diagram. We are now living in the fourth warm interval. It is clear that prehistoric men began to make fist-hatchets in one of the warm intervals ; but it has been very difficult for geologists and archaeologists to find out %vhich warm interval. Some think that it was the second, and if so, then men began making stone tools at least two hundred thousand years ago. Most investigators, however, now believe that stone toolmaking began early in the third warm interval ; that is, the warm interval preceding the last advance of the ice. In this case stone toolmaking may have begun as late as fifty thousand years before Christ. But Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, in his valuable volume Men of the Old Sto?ie Age^ accept? a date over one hundred and twenty-five thousand years ago for the earliest stone tools, which he also places in the third wdixm. interval

Early Mankind m Europe 9

the southern edge of the ice is marked by lines of bowlders carried and left there by the ice. Such lines of bowlders are found, for example, as far south as Long Island, and westward along the valleys of the Ohio and Missouri.

The hunter saw the glittering blue masses of glacier ice, with 14. The end their crown of snow, pushing through the green of his forest stone Age ^ abode and crvishing down vast trees in many a sheltered glen or favorite hunting-ground. Many of the animals familiar to him retreated to the warmer South, and he was forced gradually to accustom himself to a cold climate. This change ended the Early Stone Age, but the rude fist-hatchet of its hunters, and the bones of theTiug^ animals they slew, were sometimes left lying side by side in the sand and gravel far up on the valley slopes where in these prehistoric ages the rivers of France once flowed, before their deep modern beds had been eroded. And as these long-buried relics are brought forth to-day, they tell us the fascinating story of man's earliest progress in gaining control of the world about him. The coming of the ice, strange as it may seem, brought with it a new period of progress, which we call the Middle Stone Age.

Section 3. The Middle Stone Age

Unable to build himself a shelter from the cold, the hunter 15. The intook refuge in the limestone caves (Fig. 4), where he and his Middle stone descendants continued to live for thousands of years. We can ^£^ IJlt^i.^lT