Julius Caesar

Introduction

In selecting Julius Caesar to form one of the numbers of this Shakespearean series, I have been prompted by a recognition of certain specific needs, rather than an appreciation of dramatic and literary values.

It is not only the most popular of Shakespeare *s dramas but by reason of its theme it makes a stronger appeal to the children than any of the other tragedies, and is more easily understood. Pupils will readily see that both Caesar and Brutus, in their different ways, were striving to accomplish the same purpose : suppress greed, injustice, and government corruption generally. Attention can profitably be called to the extravagance of the age, the mad pursuit of pleasure and various problems involving the country's progress and social welfare, all of which bear more than a passing resemblance to conditions, which nearly two thousand years later are engaging the attention of public spirited men and women in our own country. The progressive teacher will quickly recognize the special opportunities to instill lessons in patriotism, stimulate an interest in public questions, and reveal the worth of civic virtues.

Then there are the ethical values. No other Shake, spearean drama offers such a wealth of opportunities to teach lessons of vital w^orth in character building. Most vividly has the poet revealed the part truth, honor and integrity play in a career, and the inevitable tragedy which follows the violation of these virtues. These lessons are so apparent it is hardly necessary to

4 INTRODUCTION

dwell upon them, and it is always well to remember that the aversion to moralizing is general.

Although primarily designed for class room work, it is hoped that the teacher will give a dramatic presentation of at least some of the scenes, and to further facilitate this suggestions for a simple staging are offered in the appendix.

I wish to take this opportunity of expressing to Miss Janet D. Reid of the Warren School, Chicago, and to Miss Eva Smedley, Principal of the Noyes Street School, Evanston, my gratitude for helpful suggestions offered during the preparation of this manuscript.

Mabel Tuttle Frush.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

On Henley street, in the village of Stratf ord-on-Avon, Warwickshire, England, there stands a little two-story building in which was born William Shakespeare, the greatest of all English authors. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but the old parish register in the village church shows that he was christened on April 26, 1564. Since children were then generally christened at the age of three days, he is supposed to have been born on April 23. That happens also to have been the day of his death, which occurred in 1616.

He was the eldest son of John and Mary Shakespeare, and the third child in a family of eight. During his childhood his people appear to have been in fairly comfortable circumstances, but later his father, who was a small shopkeeper, and at one time mayor of Stratford, met with reverses.

Of the early years of Shakespeare very little is known. He received but limited schooling, and it is not known what occupation he followed before going to London.

In November, 1582, at the age of eighteen, the poet was married to Anne Hathaway, who was seven years his senior. She was also a native of Stratford parish, having been born in Shottery, a little village now noted as the site of the **Anne Hathaway Cottage,'' in which she passed her girlhood. Three children were born of this marriage: Susanna, Hamnet and Judith, the last two twins. The daughters survived their father, but Hamnet died at the age of twelve.

6 WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

In his early twenties Shakespeare went to London, where he spent the greater part of the time until he retired in 1610. He was connected with the theatre in various capacities, and had written eighteen dramas before he was thirty-four. Success attended his efforts, and he became the owner of some valuable property, including **New Place," one of the finest residences in Stratford. He was residing there at the time of his death, which occurred at the age of fifty-two years. He is buried in Stratford church, whence doubtless his remains would have been transferred to Westminster long ago were it not for the inscription above the crypt.

TO - PIC C ' TH;E ; D\^T ENSllGASEP MJsRL'^ BLCrEr BL /f MAN Y .sMli^£ -fen^TON e| AND^ evBST{BE HE ¥ MOVES: MY BONLS-

Two thousand years ago the Roman empire controlled the world. One by one she had gradually conquered the more important nations of the earth, seizing their wealth and taking their citizens captive. No other nation had such generals, statesmen and orators, and the world has never known greater.

Ancient Rome. This mighty empire had its beginning in Rome, the capital of Italy, which was founded by Romulus in 753 B. C. That was hundreds of years before the discovery of printing or the art of bookmaking, and as few records were kept then the early history of the city is largely legendary. Rome is located about fifteen miles from the Mediterranean sea. The original site of the city was the seven hills on the east bank of the Tiber, the second largest river in Italy. There are still to be found well-preserved ruins of some of the ancient buildings, while the great galleries of the city contain many interesting works of art of that period.

The Forum. All the public squares of Rome were called forums, but the largest of these was called The Forum, and the ruins of this magnificent old square are now one of the most interesting sights of Italy's capital. It was adorned with statues of the heroes and kings of Rome and beautiful ornamental sculpture, and surrounding it were various public buildings of such perfect proportion and design they are still regarded as masterpieces of architecture. At one end was a rostrum or pulpit, from which were delivered many of the greatest orations ever heard. It was here the people assembled on all great public occasions.

The Early Republic. During the first two or three hundred years Kome was ruled by kings, of whom there were seveUj Komulus having been the first. At last the people grew tired of their tyranny, and, under the rule of Tarquinius Superbus, overthrew the monarchy and established a republic.

The leader in this revolt was a patrician named Lucius Junius. He was a very clever man and knew that the success of his undertaking depended upon carefully-laid and skilfully-executed plans. It required time to perfect his arrangements, and he was constantly in danger of arousing the suspicions of the king. To avoid this possibility he pretended to be an idiot, and, as he was believed really to have lost his reason, he was nicknamed Brutus, which means stupid. When later the people realized how much they owed to his clever deception, the name which had been applied to him in ridicule came to signify great honor, and was borne with pride by his descendants.

The Patricians and Plebeians. When the republic was established there were two parties in Kome, the patricians or nobles, founded by Romulus, and the plebeians or common people. Naturally the patricians, who were educated people of wealth, were the stronger and more influential, and when the king was overthrown they assumed the government of the country. The heads of their families composed the senate and from their number were chosen two consuls, who were the leaders in all matters of government. The constitution was very broad, however, and granted to the people many privileges. All the laws were made in the Comitia, an assembly of all the male citizens, and they

I also chose the consuls, who were elected annually. The rights of the plebeians were further protected by officers known as Tribunes of the People, in whom was vested considerable authority, their special duty being to prevent the patricians from imposing upon the common people. At first there were only two of these officers, but their number was gradually increased until there v/ere ten.

Revolt of the Plebeians. Although they were enjoying far greater freedom than under the rule of the king, the plebeians were not satisfied. They sought representation in the senate and demanded that their party be recognized as eligible to the consulship. Their insistence became more urgent as, year by year, they witnessed the senate assume greater authority, and the country was in constant turmoil. In time the plebeians increased in strength and numbers until the patricians were compelled to recognize their power and accede to their demands.

Activities of the People. For several centuries after the founding of the republic the Roman government remained pure, but increasing wealth and power brought corruption. The people gave less and less attention to agriculture and kindred pursuits with each conquest of the army. The farms became deserted and the sons of the common people were drawn into the army. War and the love of conquest crowded out every other ambition. The patrician families, who were yearly enriched by the plunder from the conquered countries, lived in the greatest luxury. Their only thought was pleasure and they indulged in the wildest extravagances, their mode of living ultimately demoralizing all classes of society.

Pompey the Great. In the first Century before Christ there was born in one of the patrician families of Rome a boy, who was destined to be one of the world's great military leaders. His name was Pompey, and by reason of his many successes he was later surnamed the Great. When still a young man he went to Asia, where he made extensive conquests, returning to Rome with many captives and richly laden with spoils. As was customary on such occasions, the senate decreed a Triumph for him. Beautiful arches were erected over the street through which he marched. The houses were gayly decorated with banners and flags, and the streets and public squares were thronged with people in their best attire. We are told it took two days for this procession to pass a given place, which enables us to form some conception of its magnitude. The people paid Pompey every homage, vying with each other to do him honor. He was pronounced the greatest of all Roman generals, and his statue decorated the Forum and other public places. As a further evidence of regard he was appointed consul, the highest office in the republic. This honor did not satisfy him, however. Pompey was very ambitious and secretly aspired to be dictator, although he was hardly qualified to meet the requirements of such a position. But doubtless he would have realized his ambition, regardless of his unfitness, had it not have been for another Roman general, whose remarkable conquests in the west threatened to overshadow the achievements of Pompey. Caius Julius Caesar, Pompey 's rival, was the greatest man of ancient Rome. Shakespeare pronounced him *'the foremost man of all the world," which without doubt he was, for he has never been surpassed either as a soldier or a statesman. He possessed a brilliant mind and excelled in everything he undertook, his fearlessness being matched by his determination. Although he was not without faults, they were overshadowed by his many noble qualities, and he will ever be ranked as one of the wisest and bravest of men.

Characteristics. Julius Caesar was born in the year 100 B. C, and was a member of one of the old patrician families. But unlike many of his class he had great sympathy for the common people, saw their needs and recognized their rights. His keen foresight, judgment and intelligence showed him that in them, not in the nobles, lay the country's strength. Ignorant and superstitious, they were easily swayed in their opinions, but they recognized in Caesar a powerful friend and benefactor. The very qualities which won him favor with the masses naturally made him unpopular with the ruling class. But Caesar possessed to an unusual degree that attribute which always distinguishes the truly great : the ability to make men serve his purpose. It was this power which enabled him to conquer a nation, and then win the stanch support and loyalty of its people, as he did in Gaul.

Early Public Service. Caesar chose a military career, and in early manhood distinguished himself in the Asiatic wars, gaining rapid promotion. Later he aspired to various civil offices, and in order better to qualify himself to meet their requirements he subsequently studied law and oratory. His ready understanding and keen intelligence won him quick recognition in both vocations, particularly in oratory in which he ranked second to Cicero only. He also distinguished himself as an author. In any capacity in which he served Caesar readily won favor with all but his rivals, who were ever jealous of his achievements. Not only was he blessed with unusual foresight, but he possessed the rare faculty of knowing just when and how to meet a difficult situation, either on the field of battle or in civic affairs. Having capably filled various lesser offices at last he was made consul, and while serving in this capacity instituted many reforms. As a consul 's term was for a year only and he could not be re-elected for ten years, it was impossible for him to accomplish very much permanent good.

Military Conquests. At the expiration of his term of office Caisar went with his army into Gaul, where he remained for nine years. He not only conquered that people, but also the Belgians and certain German tribes, and twice he invaded Britain. He had been promised the consulship when again eligible to that office, and having completed his conquests in the west prepared to return home. Caesar's ambition was as great as his ability, but his purposes were not selfish. He aspired to the highest office in the government, but he was prompted' by a desire to serve that government. He was as able to estimate his own abilities as those of his contemporaries, and knew full well that he was better qualified to serve the best interests of the people than any other man in Rome. The republic, through corruption and the abuse of power, had become a farce, and the country was ruled by the senate. A more corrupt body never existed. They would stoop to anything to gain their ends, and by means of bribes prevented any interference on the part of the people. Great wealth was constantly being poured into the treasury, but the bulk of it subsequently passed into possession of the senators. Prudent and wise beyond his time, Caesar plainly foresaw what the ultimate outcome of this must be. It was clear to his splendid vision that it was too late to revive the republic, and if the government were to be preserved, the power in the hands of the senators must be given to one man, who would see that all the states and the conquered nations enjoyed equal privileges. This arrangement he knew would meet the approval of the people generally, but not, of course, of the ruling body. He aspired to this office and knowing himself capable of meeting its responsibilities began directing his plans to that end.

Defeat of Pompey. The reform measures introduced by Cagsar during the period of his consulship had not met with the favor of the majority in power, and they determined if possible to prevent his re-appointment. Such an achievement presented many difficulties, for he was known invariably to accomplish what he undertook, and the size and loyalty of his army made him a formidable foe.

At last certain of the senators instigated Pompey, who was then consul, to demand that Caesar resign the government of Gaul, abandon his army and return home, Caesar replied by rapidly marching his troops toward Eome. Pompey with his followers fled to Asia, where he raised an army and prepared to wage war. He was pursued by Caesar, at whose hands he met a terrible defeat in Greece. His army destroyed, abandoned by the majority of his followers and deserted by his allies, Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain. Thus ended the life of a man who a few short months before had been the hero of a nation.

Other generals then took up the cause, but all were defeated, and having conquered the sons of Pompey, who held the Roman province of Spain, Caesar returned to Rome. The senate had decreed a Triumph for him, but it bore little resemblance to that of Pompey, for not having waged war against a foreign nation he had brought back with him neither captives nor spoils.

The Conqueror's Honors. Despite his mighty victory Cgesar still had hosts of enemies, many of them men who owed their positions to his favor. Like all great men he was envied by the' ambitions but less capable, who were always seeking something in his life to criticise. Failing in this they turned to invention and exaggeration.

Although not entirely ignorant of the envy and jealousy he had created, Caesar had no sense of fear, and assumed his duties with no thought or consideration for anything but the work he wished to accomplish. The senate made him dictator for life, with the title of Imperator, and the right to choose his successor. A statue was erected to him in the capitol, inscribed *^ Caesar the demigod. '^ His image was to be borne in the procession of the gods and the seventh month of the year was named in honor of him.

His Enemies. Such authority in the hands of one man filled many of the people with apprehension. They remembered the stories told of the kings who ruled Rome before the days of the republic. Chief among those who feared too great power had been given Csesar were Brutus, a descendant of Lucius Junius, and Cassius. Brutus was held in high regard by Caesar, to whom more than any one else he was indebted for the success of his public career. But Brutus was a visionary, with high ideals and impracticable theories, and although he had not forgotten his debt to Caesar, he felt he owed a greater obligation to Rome. He was a man of fine honor and integrity, and was held in high esteem by the Romans, whose confidence he had won by faithful public service. Cassius, on the other hand, was of an envious disposition, ever ready to take offense and quick to resent a wrong, whether real or imaginary. His every act was prompted by selfishness, and if treachery were necessary to accomplish his purpose he never hesitated to employ it.

Thus it will be seen that many trials and difficulties awaited Caesar, whose motives were wrongly construed and misunderstood even by those he held dearest. Much of this he knew, but it did not shake his purpose. Determination had ever marked his way, and he fearlessly resolved steadily to pursue the course he had undertaken.

p pp m ci^»t j^fai i»ip«'

[mtE

^11 w

^^s ,%j.7 . ■. sHljBnj

J.i p

TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

Mantegna

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS

The author does not presume to offer any plan for the teaching of Shakespeare, because a method that will produce highly satisfactory results in the hands of one teacher, may prove entirely ineffectual as employed by another. The personality of the instructor counts for more in the teaching of literature than in any other subject, and this is* especially true in regard to Shakespeare.

Interesting the Pupil. If the teacher is thoroughly familiar with the text, and a sufficiently ardent admirer of Shakespeare to be independent of the opinions of the commentators and critics, her enthusiasm will radiate to the class and awaken a response in the most indifferent pupil. Once the interest of the students has been aroused it will increase, if their attention is confined to the characters, dramatic development and the plot sequence. Pupils in schools below collego should be made lovers of Shakespeare, not critical students, and the only way to achieve this end is to avoid detailed analysis. Literature is not science and should not be subjected to laboratory methods. The understanding of the text presents quite enough difficulties to the average pupil, without his mind being encumbered with the date of the production, sources of the plot, changes in the text, and other, to him, irrelevant data. It is likewise advisable to minimize the importance of note-books. If a student is interested he will likely take notes, and if he is not the insistence on notes will not tend to fire his enthusiasm.

18 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS

Textual Study. Acquainted with the preliminary conditions and setting of the play, pupils are ready for the actual study of the text. Generally speaking it is advisable for the teacher to give the first reading of each assignment. At the close, attention should be called to such words or phrases as, in her opinion, are likely to prove too difficult for independent study. The assistance or suggestions she offers for their mastery should be largely determined by the aptitude of the class. Here again caution must be exercised not to make the word and phrase study too detailed. It is not advisable to spend much time in clearing up obscure phrases, their meaning will gradually come as the pupil becomes familiar with the drama, particularly in the dialogue reading. The essential thing is that the class acquire an intelligent appreciation of each incident in the development of the plot and of the characters.

The first class-reading should not be interrupted for textual explanations. Such difficulties as were not disposed of prior to the reading should be postponed until its close.

Reading by Parts. The advisability of beginning the dialogue study before the drama has been read through is a matter to be left to the discretion of the teacher. It does not seem generally advisable, however, to begin reading by parts until the pupils are familiar with the entire plot, otherwise they cannot intelligently apprehend their respective roles. Certainly no memorizing should be required until character assignments have been made, as it is impossible for pupils to appreciate the full beauty and significance of the lines unless the words are illuminated by the emotional content revealed through the action of mind on mind in the character interpretation.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 19

Written Work. It may be doubted whether pupils are benefited to any appreciable extent by writing themes on the characters, their motives, etc., as of necessity these are only too often simply a compilation of the ideas of others. Informal class room discussions, however, where the pupils are encouraged to express their personal views are very helpful. The ability to think while on his feet and to express his ideas definitely and graphically is quite as essential a part of a pupil's education as the ability to write, and is not generally given the consideration it should receive. A composition which calls for personal preferences is likewise valuable.

In the matter of examinations the *'best method" is the one which meets the teacher's individual ideas of the fundamental purpose in the study of Literature. It hardly appears just, however, to attempt to gauge a pupil's knowledge, understanding and appreciation of a drama save by comparing his intellectual estimate with his vocal interpretation of the author's thought.

I

SUGGESTIONS ON LITERARY INTERPRETATION

It is impossible in the limited space here allotted to give more than a few general suggestions on literary interpretation. Those here offered are for the most part just broad working principles, designed to assist the teacher in obtaining a more intelligent reading of the lines. In some instances, however, specific sugges^ tions have been given on the interpretation of a few of the more difficult passages.

Thought Reading. The reading of verse, even blank verse, offers many difficulties to children, who are usually disposed to read lines rather than thoughts. Much can be done to overcome this tendency by having the pupils read rapidly around the class, each reading one thought.

Where a passage contains many modifying clauses, it is well to have the pupil omit these until he has mastered the principal thought, then add the modifiers one by one. He will thus not only grasp the idea of subordinating modifying clauses to the main theme, but will more readily acquire the ability to differentiate values.

Inversion always offers difficulties, but these can usually be overcome by having the pupil transpose the sentence into its direct form. When the correct reading has been established, again invert the phrase or sentence, using the same inflections.

Vocal Interpretation. The teaching of no other subject, unless it is vocal music, requires as close observa-

22 Ot^ LITERARY INTERPRETATION

tion and criticism of self on the part of the instructor as that of reading. This does not mean that the teacher should cultivate a studied nicety of speech or an affected quality of voice, but it does necessitate an appreciation of distinct enunciation, clear articulation and a pleasantly modulated voice. Owing to a natural disposition to imitate, children unconsciously acquire the speech and voice of their teacher, this is especially true of her manner of reading.

It is commonly observed that the reading voice of the average child is distinguished by a quality entirely unknown to his speaking voice. This voice is generally acquired through an effort to obey the teacher's injunction to ' * read louder. ' ' In order to make himself heard, the pupil naturally takes a higher pitch, giving his tone a hard metallic quality, which makes his reading sound artificial. The carrying power of a voice no less than its beauty is largely dependable upon its resonance and overtones, qualities not to be found in the so called ** public school voice," which also lacks the flexibility necessary to variety in expression. The fact that a pupil cannot be heard is more often due to poor enunciation and faulty articulation than the tone.

It is not sufficient to call the pupil's attention to his fault, he must be assisted in finding his correct pitch. One of the most satisfactory methods of accomplishing this is to have him read some simple sentence, which would naturally be read iii the middle register, as ''I went home at noon," or ''School is dismissed at three o'clock," at several different pitches. The suggestion, **Tell me that," is also helpful. It is advisable to impress upon the minds of the children that correct tone placing is as essential to the quality of a speaking voice as to that used in singing. The principles learned in the music lesson can always be profitably applied in the reading class.

Poor articulation is one of the most prevalent faults to be noted in the average reading class. Except when due to physical conditions this is usually attributable to a disregard of vowel values, the slurring of certain consonant combinations, or the clipping of final letters. Shakespeare should never be employed for any purpose but the teaching of Shakespeare, but a little attention on the part of an observant teacher will enable her to locate the pupil's difficulty, and she can readily devise or select a mechanical exercise of full-voweled words, difficult consonant combinations, or troublesome final syllables, the practice of which will assist the pupil in overcoming his habit.

Many of Brutus' speeches in the ''Orchard Scene" are addressed to himself. This subjective quality of tone is very difficult for the amateur, but it can be acquired by resorting to the mechanical device of having the pupil take a reflective attitude (weight on heel of back foot, eye unfocused, as if looking inward) and say, *'Let me see," endeavoring at the same time to recollect something he has really forgotten. The difference in tonal quality will readily be recognized.

The lines ''Help m.e, Cassius, or I sink!" and "Give me some drink, Titinius, ' ' Act I, Scene II, are especially difficult, but can be mastered if given with the idea of reading "down the breath." With the giving out of the breath the chest drops, producing a feeling of physical lassitude. The teacher, however, should never call a pupil's attention to the mechanics necessary to produce an effect, but work through the imagination by having him recall the sensation experienced at some time when frightened or ill, thus awakening the true physical emotion which results in a corresponding vocal response.

Breathing. Unless the reading class follows the singing lesson or physical exercises it is advisable to devote at least two minutes to breathing exercises. This will serve to stimulate the thought and improve the voice work. When pupils get out of breath while reading or breathe in the wrong place, they should be cautioned to breathe at the end of the thought. It is especially necessary to heed this injunction when reading the swimming incident related by Cassius in Act I, Scene II; full, deep breathing being necessary to express the vitality of youth, and physical action, so splendidly suggested by the rhythm and short phrases.

Inflections. The teacher should not require the pupils to imitate her reading, but she should bring out the thought or obtain the inflection desired by questions. For example line 145, Act I, Scene II, is seldom read correctly: ''Men at some time are masters of their fates," not "masters of their fates.'' If the pupil puts the stress on the latter word, the question, "Men are at some time what?" will usually bring the correct inflection. Should it fail the teacher can read the line, omitting the word "masters" which the pupil should supply. He should then be requested to read the entire line. Care must be exercised not to make these drills too long; for expression is a matter of emotional and intellectual development and cannot be forced. The fuller intellectual appreciation that gradually comes from familiarity with the drama, invariably results in tonal variety and better inflections. This method of questioning is necessary to bring out the meaning of the last