Zoölogical science

Front matter

GIass_

Book.

of the jXi(h.ofE3.AE,ClCelioj$.

Dedication

This volume has with my aid been prepared by an esteemed and highly competent friend, to whom I am also much indebted for valuable assistance rendered in connection with the publication of the Chart which it is adapted to elucidate.

Prepared, as it has been, with the utmost care and exactness ; with unusual regard to order and fullness of explanation as to the terms employed, I am sanguine in the belief it will everywhere meet with a cordial welcome as a suitable accompaniment of the Chart. Though both are capable of being used separately, each will be found to shed light upon the other.

To Teachers, to Parents and Heads of Families, to all who are lovers of Natural History and desire its advancement, I humbly but respectfully dedicate this volume and the Chart it is intended to explain and illustrate.

Section I

The science of Natural History is truly vast in its extent, including all bodies found on the earth, or of which its mass is composed. Its most general divisions are Mineralogy, Botany and Zoology. These divisions are founded upon the different and distinguishing characters and states of the various objects which they respectively include. Minerals are inorganic bodies ; they are without life, and incapable of increase or diminution except by means of some force outwardly applied. These are earth, rock, metals, &c. Organic bodies are divided into animate and inanimate. The former comprehend substances endowed with sense and motion and belong to the department of Zoology ; the latter are without the faculties of sense and motion, and included in Botany. Organized beings, whether animate or inanimate, differ from inorganic ones in having the power of reproduction, or continuing the existence of beings like themselves. Animals derive their nourishment either directly or indirectly from vegetables, of which hydrogen and carbon are the principal ingredients. The latter derive their nourishment from the soils of the earth and from the atmosphere.

In the survey of objects so numerous and possessing such varied characteristics as those of Natural History, classification is obviously of high importance. A union of several traits is almost always required to distinguish a single being from others around it which have some, but not all of the same traits, or have them in combination with others of which that single being is destitute. In the work of classification a number of neighboring beings are compared with each other; and their differences, which are supposed to be the least part of their formation, are made indexes of their character. The union formed ,by the comparison of objects which agree, but with certain differences, u

10 NATURAL HISTORY.

is called a species. Genera are formed into orders, and orders into classes.

The Chart of which this volume is explanatory, exhibits the "Animal Kingdom " by means of a Tree having four branches, each representing one of the four sub-kingdoms into which it is divided, viz., Vertebrates, Articulates. Mollusks and Radiates. Each branch puts forth other branches bearing subdivisions — classes, orders, families, genera, &c, illustrated by numerous and appropriate figures, and so variously lettered and marked as to be easily distinguished. It was prepared with great labor, and in the use of much research, in order to facilitate acquisitions in the department of physical science which it delineates and with the hope of thus encouraging a more general introduction of the Study of Natural History into our Seminaries oi learning, from the Common School to the College and University. " Man," said Lord Bacon, " is the minister and interpreter of Nature."

More attention should be given in the domestic circle, and in the various schools of instruction to the business of training the young to be observers of nature. A fondness for the lessons and researches of natural history, implanted in the mind during the pefiod of youth, will, in all probability, last through life, affecting fa. vorably the entire mental development.

None should neglect the investigations to which by the " View of the Animal Kingdom," they are invited. Such investigations, it should be remembered, pertain neither to fiction nor hypothesis — but to realities. They seem specially adapted to man's endowments in his present state of existence ; but the facts and impressions which he derived from an earnest contemplation of the works of God, memory will embalm and render immortal. "And as now the memory of home is pleasurable in proportion to the vividness and distinctness of its image ; as we now attach importance to the most insignificant object around the place of our birth ; as we regard with intense interest the old elm,' the green lawn, the hawthorn bush, the rivulet because they are inseparably connected with our developments of mind, even so perhaps may we then, after millions of ages shall have elapsed, recall with increasing pleasure the physical scenery of this birth-place of our existence."

QUESTIONS ON SECTION I.

What does the science of Natural History include? What are its general divisions ? What are minerals ? How are organic bodies divided ? Which belong to Zoology? Which to Botany? How do organic bodies

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 11

differ from inorganic ? From what do animals derive their nourishment ? Of what do vegetables principally consist? From what do they derive their nourishment ? What is necessary to distinguish one being from another ? How do you proceed in classifying objects? What is a genus? What is a species ? Of what are orders and classes formed ? What is the definition of genus and species at the bottom of the chart on the left hand ? What are minuter differences called ? Answer. Varieties. What does a generic name signify or comprehend ? Ans. It comprehends all the species ; Canis, for example, is the generic name of animals of the Dog kind, including the Fox {Cards Vulpes,) the Wolf (C. Lupus,) the Jackal (C. aureus,) and the domestic Dog {C. familiar is.) How are generic terms printed on the chart ? Ans. Always larger than the common name by which the animal is known, and commencing with a capital letter. How do you distinguish the specific from the generic name ? Ans. It follows the generic term in letters of the same size, and should not commence with a capital, unless it is derived from some person or place, or is sometimes used in a generic sense. Why is the name of the species often omitted on the .chart ? Ans. For want of room, and fear of confusing the student by crowding too much in a small space. How are the families distinguished on the chart ? Ans. By their terminating in idae, as mustelidae for the Weasel Tribe, or Family. How can you distinguish the orders ? Ans. They are printed in CAPITALS, and the number of orders is mentioned on the branch, as in the Ungulata, or hoofed Mammals. Are there any other divisions or distinctions on the chart ? Ans. Several, as among the cud chewing some have solid horns, some are hollow, and some are entirely without horns ; some shed them annually as in the deer, in others they are permanent, as in the ox or sheep. Some birds are terrestrial, others aquatifc ; some insects and reptiles are venomous (poisonous ;) others are non-venomous, or harmless. Wherever there is room, you will find these things noticed on the branches, or as near the classes, orders or figures as practicable. Dots are often added to make the connection or relation still plainer ; and where there is but small space allotted to explanation or figures, the deficiency will be remedied as we proceed. How many ranks, or grades of groups does Swainson enumerate ? Ans. Nine, commencing with the highest, and terminating with the lowest assemblages. 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub-kingdom; 3. Class; 4. Order; 5. Tribe; 6. Family; 7. Sub-family; 8. Genus; 9. Sub-genus. Name the four great Classes, or Sub-Kingdoms from the chart.

Section II. The Animal Kingdom

The system of Zoology places man at the head of this Kingdom. As he is endowed with intellectual and moral faculties, and fitted for responsible action, there is room for doubt whether, in his pre-eminence, he should have a place among the tribes of animals. But as his being is compound, he becomes the connecting link between them and beings purely spiritual. To the former he is allied by his bodily frame with its appetites and passions; to the latter by his reason and mental susceptibilities. Instinct distinguishes the lower animals — truly wonderful in some of its actings as will be shown hereafter ; but yet only a mere internal impulse, and incapable of improvement. The bird shows it in building its nest; the bee in constructing its cells; but both the nest and comb are made as skillfully at the first as in any subsequent trial.

There seems no occasion to mistake by referring to mineralogy or botany what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom ; and yet in such animals as the oyster we discern but little of the sensibility and capacity for voluntary motion which are usually adduced as characteristics of the animal tribes.

Chemistry has ascertained that the substances found both in animals and vegetables are chiefly formed of four elements, viz., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These have, therefore, been called organic elements. The opposite and distinctive natures of plants and animals may be seen in the functions which they perform dependently one on another. In animal respiration, the oxygen of the atmosphere is combined with the blood, forming carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off from the entire surface of the body in some animals ; from the gills of those that live in water, and the lungs of those that live in air. Animals thus consume oxygen — to them it is pabulum vitae— the food of life. Plants, on the contrary, consume carbonic acid and give off oxygen. They thus become able to furnish animals with carbon. Animals, in their turn furnish food to plants. The excretions which they throw off, yield ammonia (consisting of hydrogen and nitrogen.) from which substance vegetables principally derive their nitrogen. The animal derives the constituents of its body from the vegetable kingdom ; the plant obtains its elements from the mineral kingdom. The tissues of the plant change mineral into organic substances ; those of the animal change organic substances into mineral.

A further contrast between plants and animals is presented in the effects produced upon them, respectively, by light and heat. Both of these are indispensable to the proper growth of plants. The productions found in their tissues are but the expression of the light and heat they have, as it were, appropriated. Many of the substances in this way formed, are taken as food into the systems of animals ; but in them are again set free in the form of "vital animal forces."

Differences of structure also constitute an important ground of distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; yet, sometimes, as in the sponge, it is only by considering to which there is the greatest general resemblance, it can be decided whether a particular being should be classed as an animal or vegetable.

The different methods by which they receive food, and assimilate it or convert it into their own substance, form another distinction between animals and plants. Vegetables imbibe their nourishment through their outward surface, or through their roots and leaves ; but animals, for the most part, have a stomach, or internal cavity, into which the food is received, where it is digested, and by appropriate vessels, absorbed into the body.

The food of animals is generally in a solid state, and must be rendered fluid before it can be formed into the tissues. Taken at intervals, and stored in the stomach, it does not hinder their movements from place to place. During the intervals of its reception, it is kept in contact with the absorbent vessels. Hence, animals are said to " bear their soil about with them." The earth is called " the stomach of plants."

The habits and instincts of animals must also be considered by the zoologist in making up the account of the differences between them and plants. This is a field which affords a wide scope for comparison and research in tracing analogies between objects in many respects diverse, and one which teaches many lessons concerning the Divine wisdom and benevolence.

The chart of "the Animal Kingdom" presents a view of that branch of Natural History which is called Zoology, a term derived from the Greek Zoon, an animal, and logos, a discourse. This includes nine divisions, viz. ; I. Mammalogy, which treats of the Mammalia, or animals that nurse their young ; II. Ornithology, which relates to Birds ; III. Erpetology, which includes the Natural History of Reptiles ; IV. Ichthyology, which gives the Natural History of Fishes ; V. Entomology, which gives the Natural History of Insects ; VI. Crustaceology, which treats of Crabs, Lobsters, &c. ; VII. Helminthology, which treats of Worms; VIII. Malacolog}', which includes Conchology, and describes soft-bodied animals, with and without shells; IX.* Actinology, which treats of radiate animals, as the Star-fish, Sea- Anemone, &c. The Animal Kingdom is divided, as on the chart, into four sub-kingdoms, viz.: Vertebrates, Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates.

* We have ventured to introduce this new term, formed from the Greek word aktin, a ray, (corresponding with the Latin radius,) and logos, a discourse, in order to have the names of the several branches alike as to their termination and Greek derivation, though the terms actinia and actiniada), (generic and family,) refer distinctively to the Sea- Anemones.

The Vertebrates, (from the Latin vertebra, a joint, which comes from verier e, to turn,) have a jointed backbone, or internal bony skeleton. They are divided into Warm and Cold Blooded ; the former, including Mammals, (Mammalia.) and Birds, (Aves ;) the latter, Reptiles, (Reptilia.) and Fishes, (Pisces.) The Whale tribe. (Cetacea,) inhabiting the sea, form one order of the Mammalia.

Articulates, (from the Latin articulus, a ring or joint,) are animals in which the body and legs are jointed, and the hardest parts are outside. These are arranged into three classes, viz. : Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms.

Mollusks, (from the Latin mollis, soft,) are shell-fish whose nervous system is composed of several scattered masses, or ganglions, united by means of nervous threads, and whose soft bodies are generally protected by a shell.

Radiates, (from the Latin radius, a ray,) are animals whose parts are disposed in the form of rays, tending to a common center, where the mouth is placed, as in the Star-fish.

QUESTIONS OX SECTION 2.

Who is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom ? "With what is he endowed? For what is he fitted? What does his compound being constitute him? How is he allied to animals ? How to spiritual beings? What guides the lower animals instead of reason ? Does the bird or bee construct its last nest or comb with more skill than the first ? Is there any need of mistake in referring to Mineralogy or Botany, what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom? How is it with the Oyster? What are the four elements both in vegetables and animals ? What name is given to these elements? What shows the opposite natures of plants and animals? When animals breathe, what is combined with the blood? What gas is thus formed ? How is this thrown off in some animals ? How in others ? What is oxygen called? On what do plants live? What do they give off? What do they furnish to animals? What do animals furnish plants? What is obtained from animal excretions? What do vegetables derive from it? Whence does an animal derive the constituents of its body, and whence the plant its elementary ingredients ? What is a further source of contrast between plants and animals ? What additional ground of distinction is there between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ? In some cases, how is it determined to which of the two a particular being belongs? What further distinction between plants and animals is referred to? How do vegetables take in their nourishment ? How animals ? What is said about the food of animals ? What are animals said to do ? What has the earth been called? What is said of the habits and instincts of animals as relates to the differences between them and plants ? What benefits flow from tracing the analogies between animals and plants ? Is this a wide field and what does it teach ?

What does the Chart present ? From what is the term Zoology derived ? Of which of the three kingdoms of nature is this Chart a general view ?

PL.1I.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Vertebrates, Articulates, Molldsks and Radiates.

VERTEBRATES.

1. Homo sapiens, Man.

2. Cebus, Monkey.

3. Canielus Promedarius, Dromedary.

4. Avis, Bird.

5. Ciconia Alba, White Stork.

6. Pisces, Fishes.

7. Ophis, Snake.

8. Pana pipiens, Bull-frog.

9. Alligator lucius, Alligator.

ARTICULATES.

1. Astacus marinus, Lobster.

2. Papilio, Butterfly.

3. Culex pipiens, Mosquitoe.

4. Musca domestica, Common House Fly.

5. Larva, or Caterpillar of a Moth or Butterfly.

6. Tettigonia verrucivora, Spotted Grasshopper of Europe.

7. Clerus apiarius, Hive Beetle.

8. Lucanus cervus, Stag Beetle.

MOLLUSKS.

1. Buccinum, Whelk.

2. Mitra Episcopalis, Bishop's Mitre.

4. Planorbis, Coil-shell.

5. Siliquaria.

6. Nautilus umbilicatus, Umbilicated Nautilus.

7. Loligo vulgaris, Common Calamary.

8. Triton variegatics, Variegated Triton.

9. Physa fontinalis, Bubble-shell.

Fig. 1. Corallum rubrum, Red Coral.

2. Apiocrinites rotundas.

3. Pdwardsia vestita.

4. Piancea, a Jelly-fish, or Medusa.

5. Tima Jlavilabris, Jelly-fish.

6. Asterias, Star-fish.

7. Zoanthus Solunderi, Animal Flower, or Zoophyte.

8. Astrceq ananas, Pine-apple Coral.

How many divisions does it include ? Of what does Mammalogy treat ? To what does Ornithology relate? What does Erpetology include? What does Ichthyology give? What science treats of Insects? What of Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles? Of what does Helminthology treat? What does Malacology include and describe? Of what does Actinology treat ?

QUESTIONS ON THE CHART.

How is the Animal Kingdom divided on the Chart? To which of these four great Classes, or Sub-kingdoms, do the first four of the above nine divisions belong? Point out each division of this right hand branch. Give the name of the science pertaining to or describing each. In what particular do they all agree? Ans. In having a backbone, or spinal column. Define vertebra and give its derivation. Which are warm blooded ? Which are cold blooded ? How cold or warm are they ? How many orders of Reptiles? How many of Fishes? How many of Mammals? Which order ranks first, and is far above all othex-s ? What is said of mah, near the bottom on the right hand of the chart ? What is said of his brain ? What of his birth? What of his wants? How does he compare with others in regard to strength, speed, &c. ? Is his reason an improvable gift ? Does it supply the place of strength? What order comes next to man? How do the Quadrupeds differ from Quadrumana ? What marine animals belong to the class Mammalia ? In what element do they live ? With what organs do they move ? Is the largest living animal found in this class ? What is its name and what are its uses ? Which of the Vertebrates live in the water? Which on land? Which in the trees? Which fly? Which swim ? Which crawl ? Which are covered with feathers ? Which with hair? Which with scales? Which are born alive, (viviparous?) Which hatched from eggs, (oviparous ?) Which are entirely without limbs ? Which have but two ?

In which Sub-kingdom, or on what branch do you find Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms or Annelidans ? From what is the name Crustaceans derived ? In what do they resemble one another ? Have they any internal skeleton? Where are the hardest parts? Which is the largest of all articulated animals? Ans. Lobsters. Name some of the worms on the chart. Of what use is the leech ? Of what use is the earth or angle worm, (Lumbricus terrestris ?) Ans. This despised creature is of great use in loosening the earth, so that air and water can pass through it freely, and in covering barren tracts of land with their worm casts, thus rendering them productive. Mention some of the Insects and Crustaceans. Name the sciences describing them. Are Insects a numerous class ? Ans. They outnumber all other classes together. There are 80,000 species of the beetles alone, (order Coleoptera.) Here you find the Curculio, or weevil, deathwatch, lightning-bug, horn-bugs, &c, &c.

From what is the name of the third branch, (Mollusks,) derived? How are these soft bodies protected? How are Mollusks divided? Which have heads ? Which none ? To which division do snails and slugs belong ? On which branch do you find Oysters and Clams ? Which move about, (are free ?) Which are fixed, (stationary ?) Is the Oyster always attached to other substances ? Ans. No. Which branch of the Mollusks are entirely aquatic, or never leave the water? Are the Tunicata, or Ascidians pro^

VERTEBRATES. 19

tected by shells ? Name from the chart the largest genus of known shells. Is it a bivalve, (of two pieces,) or a univalve, (of one piece?)

Which is the fourth, last and lowest branch of the Animal Kingdom ? Define Radiate. How are the parts disposed ? Where is the mouth? From what is the term derived ? Are they aquatic ? What is said of these animals near the bottom of the chart, on the left hand ? Are they less perfect of their kind than those on the right branch ? Why, then, are they said to be the lowest in the scale of animal life? Which animals are always lowest in organization in the class, division, or order to which they belong ? Which rank next in the ascending scale ? Which rank highest of all '? Which is the lowest order of land animals which nurse their young ? Aus. The Monotremata and Marsupials. Why are the branches of the orders Marsupialia and Rodentia, (gnawers,) bent and carried around next the marine mammals ? Aus. To show that though having nails, they come next the order Cetacea, (Whales, Dolphins, &c.,) in organization. Which is the lowest or most simply organized class of animals? How many orders does it contain? What does proto signify? Is it a well established class ? What is said of it ? What animals are found on the chart among the Radiates? Which are microscopic? Which fossil? Which used as food ? What is said of Sponge ? Where does Agassiz class it? Are Animalcules, Infusories, and Microscopic or very minute animals common ? Ans. They are dispersed like seed through all nature. Are Animalcules tenacious of life? Ans. It is so difficult to kill them that they can be repeatedly dried and kept for a long time, and will revive or come again to life, as soon as put into water.

FIRST BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

MAMMALOGY, (Gr. fm^tficc, mamma, a breast; Myog, logos, a discourse.)

[. GRAND DIVISION OF VERTEBRATES, (Warm-Blooded Animals,)