The fundamentals of live stock judging and selection

Front matter

ill

Class

1 1

Preface

The recent progress of the teaching of Animal Husbandry, especially live stock judging and selection, commends this division of the subject to a full modern treatise dealing with all domestic animals. Rapid advancement in special fields of production and selection, and the addition of new phases of animal judging, have furnished much new material for the work.

In developing the subject various viewpoints ranging from that of the extensive live stock breeder to the city fancier must of necessity be considered. Not only the college student and the professional judge, but also the live stock breeder, general farmer, salesman, buyer, and the city fancier of stock at one time or another inspects animals from the standpoint of the critic. He thus becomes the judge whether in the show ring or in the field, and when the term "judge" is referred to in the text it should be understood that it is not specifically used. In certain instances attention may be directed to the student or the professional judge while in other cases any of the above meanings may be inferred. Any individual who selects stock is placed in the position of the judge, specifically speaking, and he should, therefore, be so considered in construing the various discussions herein given.

The improvements of this volume upon former presentations of the subject consist in logical groupings of the subject matter, as well as many entirely new features of special

Vl PREFACE

significance. These are brought out mainly in the first five chapters dealing with the methods and practices and .general principles applicable to the judging and selection of all classes of live stock. In the fifth chapter information is included relative to important factors or problems of the individual, the breeds and the selection of the same, otherwise than by an external examination on which student and show ring judging is necessarily based. One chapter is devoted to the jack, jennet, and mule, since the latter has become of great economic importance and former discussions of the subject have been incomplete.

A complete and convenient reference to breed descriptions through photographs and concise breed characteristics is included and supplemented with the latest standard of excellence and scale of points of each of the important breeds. Market and show ring considerations are discussed fully because of the tendency toward the more practical phases of commercial or market live stock judging. The additions include a number of the newer breeds of live stock which have recently come into prominence and therefore deserve comment.

The material included herein, especially the breed studies, has in certain instances been submitted to prominent authorities to obtain accurate and impartial criticism. It has been the aim of the author to mention only the more important phases of the subject, leaving the detailed or exhaustive information for reference reading. It can be readily realized that no single volume of this nature can exhaust the information available. The work is intended primarily for students, farmers and stockmen who wish to become familiar with the methods and practices in judging the pure breeds and market and show classes of live stock. The subject matter has been arranged systematically to facilitate the study of

PREFACE vn

particular phases in the judging and selection of the various breeds, types and classes. The author hopes that the work will fit the needs of the class room, the stockman and the general farmer.

He desires to acknowledge credit to the many books and periodicals on Animal Husbandry from which valuable help and suggestions were obtained in the preparation of this work. He is especially indebted to Carl W. Gay, University of Pennsylvania; C. S. Plumb, Ohio State University; the late John A. Craig, formerly of Oklahoma Agricultural College; Robert Wallace, University of Edinburgh; M. H. Reynolds, University of Minnesota; and F. W. Wilder, Packing Plant Superintendant, Chicago, 111., for the help and suggestions obtained from their works.

General acknowledgement is hereby given to all other sources from which helpful information was obtained. The contributions from the various books, pamphlets, bulletins, and periodicals dealing with the subject of farm animals has been invaluable in the preparation of this work.

Acknowledgement is due Robert F. Hildebrand, Chicago, 111., and Schrieber and Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., who, under the direction of the author prepared most of the illustrations, which are such a valuable source of information in a work of this nature. They therefore deserve the special touch which the animal photographer only can give them by securing the natural pose and position of the subject.

R. S. C.

North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C, 1915.

Chapter I. The Live Stock Industry

Method of Development. — The subject of live stock judging has become of widespread importance not only through the teaching of these courses in agricultural colleges, high schools and other institutions but also through the increased demand for knowledge among farmers who anticipate following some phase of live stock work. Keen competition among breeders and vendors of market animals has placed the subject on a high plane. The real constructive breeder, whose work is generally unappreciated, has perfected beauty and utility of form which is responsible in the main for revolutionizing the live stock breeding industry. Comparatively few people appreciate the improvement which has been made in animal form thereby owing to the priority of original development. A full realization of the improvement may be readily recognized, however, by comparing the original long-horn steer with the symmetrical, deep-set, well-developed, compact form of the modern bullock.

This change from the lank, rangy animal to the close compact form has been accomplished step by step. It represents the work of more than a century and the guidance of men who had clear mental pictures of what the ideal animal should be. It represents the guidance of men who have, through their own originality, principally, been able to grasp, direct and mould the consequent forces of heredity. 2 (17)

18 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY

This work represents the result of judgment and selection of animal form through which a gradual and persistent improvement has been made possible. It may be compared to two animals with widely varying marks of merit, the one representing the acme of modern development, and the other an animal of the same breed a decade prior. These visual pictures enabled the breeder to foresee what proper moulding of animal form would bring a decade hence. The breeders who, through their superlative genius, brought about these improvements are among the highest and most renowned judges of animal form. They not only painted visual pictures of what art later accomplished, but they were able to recognize readily the good and the bad and thereby eliminate the unpromising from their future breeding work. This is the same principle by which a modern judge selects the ideal type in a class and graduates the remainder of the animals in their respective positions or order of merit.

Fields for Development. — The subject of live stock judging and selection may be divided into two distinct divisions, the one representing the pure breeds of live stock used for foundation or reproductive and improvement purposes; and the other animals possessing commercial attributes as found in these breeds, either in the pure bred, cross bred or grade form when grouped in their proper type or market classes. Breeds represent the product of definite foundation blood, soil, climate, feeds, certain objects or purposes and the fancy of the various constructive breeders. While in most instances in the various types and classes of stock several breeds may conform closely to a specific purpose, almost invariably there are special characteristics which make one or the other excel under changed environment, purpose or condition. They may do likewise from the standpoint of market requirements which should be the nucleus of all live stock improvement. It is this last analysis of an animal in ascribing its fitness for work or for the block in which the majority of stockmen are interested. Breed type is important to the producer of pure bred breeding stock, but market type is of greater importance to the pro-

IMPORTANCE OF KEEN JUDGING AND SELECTION 19

ducer of market animals. These two special phases of animal improvement have opened two distinct fields for work and consequently a need for definitely arranged information on the subject.

Importance of Keen Judging and Selection. — The rapid development of the live stock industry for special productive purposes and for farm land improvement makes it not only desirable but profitable to have a thorough knowledge of live stock judging and selection. The importance of this statement can be more fully realized after becoming acquainted with the magnitude and monetary value of the industry. The loss from an individual animal through inferior breeding, careless selection, or improper feeding may be small, and therefore not seriously affect the breeder or owner. If this loss was occasioned, however, in a large herd over a long period of years, it would mean the loss of a substantial sum. Considering that faults in animal form can be largely overcome by wise judging and selection without entailing any appreciable additional outlay of money, the importance of the subject should be doubly emphasized or appreciated. The decrease in the finished weight of fat cattle at nine of the leading live stock markets in 1912 shows an average shortage of 18 pounds per head. Based on the total number of animals shipped to these markets, there was a total decrease of 144,793,620 pounds of beef. This loss could have been largely overcome by either closer selection or better methods of feeding. While other causes may have been responsible for the condition, it serves to illustrate the importance of keen judging and selection. Based on all the cattle slaughtered for a period of ten or twenty years the figures would be almost insurmountable.

It would be even more important to remedy the defects of the breeding animal than in the market animal because the former would continue to reproduce the undesirable characteristics. This factor of inferiority would be of great importance, however, even in market animals for the lack of only a few pounds gain, due either to faulty selection or feeding of the individual, would mean a large loss in the aggregate.

THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY

Value of Domestic Animals. — The magnitude of the live stock industry can best be understood by citing the figures giving; the value of these animals on the farms of the United

POSSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRY 21

States. * The Census for 1910 gives the following value of the various kinds of live stock maintained:

Kind of stock. Number. Value.

These figures are sufficient to indicate the vast economic importance of the live stock industry. Live stock judging and selection has maintained an important part in developing the industry to its present magnitude and importance, both from the standpoint of numbers and value. How much greater the value would have been through keener methods and practices in judging and selection, it would be difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say, however, that the increase in quality which might have been attained by better methods and practices would have reduced the cost of keep materially as measured in terms of the finished value of the product. As this is the problem in which the live stock husbandman is interested, the application of better methods would not only increase the quality of the product from a connoisseur's standpoint, but add profit as well to the industry.

Possibilities of Industry. — The figures given above illustrate the possibility of securing increased revenue by more careful judging and selection and better ultimate handling and management. The opinion is thoroughly conversant and borne out by facts that it does not require any more to maintain an animal with a high order of merit than it does an inferior one. Based on this statement, an average increase in weight of one pound on all kinds of domestic animals hereafter considered, exclusive of horses, mules, and asses, would mean an increase of 172,437,403 1 pounds of edible meats. It is readily imaginable how this increase could be obtained by closer selection alone. From these figures it

1 United States Census, 1910.

22 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY

is not difficult to perceive the wonderful possibilities of close judging and selection of animal form. The average value of horses per head in 1910 was $105. 06, 1 and while this includes young stock, it would be possible to increase their value 50 per cent, by more careful judging, selection, and ultimate management. Other classes of animals are equally susceptible to the same amount of improvement under like conditions.

It is recognized that it is impossible to ascribe all of the possible improvement in weight, form, and quality or other attributes to keen judging and selection, yet breeders and students of animal form readily recognize its importance. The foundation for profit in live stock farming is substantially based on the type of animal selected for breeding, work, or for direct meat productive purposes. Ill-bred animals, which means careless selection largely, are attributed as being generally unprofitable, either for breeding or feeding purposes. Close scrutinized judgment in selection could not remove all the faults of animal form at once but its continuance would be clearly apparent for a substantial period of years. Proper application of the principles of judging and selection would not only remedy many destroying influences in live stock production, but it would increase or improve almost without apparent cost the world's total supply of meat, milk and wool, and form, quality, and efficiency in work and pleasure animals.

Faculties and Requirements in Judging. — There are two special faculties necessary to select or judge accurately a class of live stock. These are, first, a proper knowledge of what constitutes the utility points which are judged, either from a breeding standpoint, or from that of market and show requirements; and second, a quick and keen observance of both the major and minor faults in animal form. Craig states that "When a distinct ideal based on the best types and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but another step to render a correct judgment."

1 United States Census, 1910.

FACULTIES AND REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 23

This increased activity and keen competition in modern judging is due to the success which constructive breeders have attained as students of live stock problems. The science of breeding, feeding, and development was formerly considered too simple for a study of the scientific roads of improvement. Live stock breeders and feeders, however, are awakening to the fact that it takes brain as well as brawn to produce prize-winning animals. Not since the days of the Collings, Booth, Bates and Cruikshank, have stockmen realized the depth of the problems in live stock selection, breeding, and feeding.

The real student of judging and selection must be practical and keen sighted to attain success, either as a judge or as a breeder. Since this is the final test of the breeder's art, the student of judging and selection must have clearly in mind the ideal animal for the various purposes intended in the breeding or commercial world. Not until he has distinctly mastered these details of utility, and becomes keenly alive to the minor differences in all parts of animal form, can he expect to be classed as a dependable live stock critic.

Chapter II. Relation Of Structure To Animal Judging

In animal judging there are special fundamental attributes or attainments, the value of which must be fixed or measured in terms of the animal mechanism to be defined or studied. Without a knowledge of these fundamental problems and their relation to the particular type of animal involved judging and selection of live stock would be at best a haphazard undertaking. The following representation of these fundamentals is not exhaustive, yet it emphasizes the importance of having a knowledge of the specialized foundation structure and its correlated parts.

PURPOSE OF ANIMAL MECHANISM.

The purpose of animal mechanism varies widely. Animals are produced for draft, speed, show, pleasure, meat, milk, and wool. In certain instances these purposes or uses may be combined in the same animal, as described subsequently. In the first four instances, wherein special reference is made to the horse, the general form of the machine is the same, although the purpose or adaptation is at a wide variance. The difference is largely in the details of structure, the mastery of which constitutes one of the main fundamentals of animal judging.

Meat is ordinarily obtained from three sources in domesticated animals. However, that of the best quality is a product of an animal bred specially for the purpose. The beef animal, the fat and bacon hog, and the mutton sheep produce what may be termed a specific product. Milk is obtained from an animal differing more widely in form and mechanism than any of those classed as food-producing animals. Meat obtained from a milk-producing animal may be classed as a (24)

RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 25

by-product. Although a large proportion of meat products are ultimately obtained from this source, the dairy animal possesses a specific type and has a specific function in milk production. Its purpose must therefore be so defined, and any surplus obtained in meat or otherwise should be classed as a by-product. In the dual purpose animal, the meat and milk-giving functions are supposed to be equally correlated. The degree of manifestation in either is arbitrary with the breeder who may change the ratio of production by a simple modification of the type through the natural source of selection and reproduction. The sheep may be classed as a dual purpose machine in one instance and as a specific machine in the other. The mutton breeds of sheep are bred for a specific purpose, although their wool is an important by-product. In the strictly wool-producing breeds, the mutton is a by-product being analogous in this respect to meat from a dairy animal.

The animal mechanism must of necessity vary greatly to perform or manifest these various phases of production. The relation between the machine and production is intimate and it is only by having a definite knowledge of the former that conformity to purpose or the power of production can be accurately measured.

RELATION OF MECHANISM TO PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION.

The form which an animal assumes is an embodiment of the inner or unseen structure, more specifically of the bone and muscle development. It is these two fundamentals that directly or indirectly determine size, shape, locomotion, compactness and disengagement or looseness of structure. The draft horse is low set, massive, and compact. This condition is a direct result of the structural units in the mechanism. Every condition of development is a manifestation of what the completed animal will be. The broad head, the short thick neck, the broad breast and deep chest, the wide, deep body and the full massive quarters are fundamental in the aquisition of weight, which is one of the chief

26 RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING

requisites of draft horse attainments. These qualifications are direct exponents of the principal nuclear structure which is the bony framework.

The speed horse is the direct opposite of the draft animal. Both the bones and muscles are longer, attaining a smaller diameter and therefore a greater manifestation of speed, which is directly associated with qualifications which possess or exhibit reach or extension. The structural development of other types of horses are modifications or combinations of the two types described. The degree of modification measures their utility, whether they still retain draft or speed qualifications or assume entirely new attainments characteristic of other distinct types of horses.

Likewise the beef and dairy animal, the fat and bacon hog, and mutton and wool-producing sheep are measured in value by their conformity to type standards which have been determined the most economical for productive purposes. The mechanism which, grossly defined, includes the bone and muscle development, determines the value of an animal. This is true, however, only when the more vital functions are working in perfect harmony with these two fundamentals of animal formation. Without proper nerve force or development, circulatory, digestive or reproductive functions, the gross materials which give size, shape, and locomotion would be of no value.

Gross Structural Material. — The bones and muscles are substantially the foundation upon which all animals are constructed. It is important, therefore, to have a clear conception of the part which these gross structural materials play in giving size and shape to the animal. The ultimate value of a dressed animal, for example, is directly dependent on the amount and quality of edible products obtained. The framework of the horse is equally important, as strength, durability, and longevity are closely associated with the attainments in this respect other than the part which they play in the formation of size and shape in the finished animal.

The muscles of an animal are directly related to the attainments of power, speed, and meat production, but more specifically to the latter. Short, thick muscles char-

RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 27

acterize the draft animal; long and thin muscles the speed animal. The fundamental purpose of the muscular system is to operate the bones. The secondary function is to give shape and a certain degree of finish to the animal. A careful study of the skeleton and muscles will reveal that much of the animal form is determined by the mass of muscles, especially in certain parts. In other regions animal form is characterized largely by the development of the bony framework. A knowledge of these relations is of extreme importance to the student of animal form.

Special and Combined Functions. — Specific functions characterize animals which are bred for one definite purpose, although they may produce liberally in other directions. Animals of the special type are easily depicted or measured in performance or productive value. Every part of their structure is perfected toward one definite end. Every attainment in the structural development is a manifestation of some definite purpose. Where there is thus no division of energy it is comparatively easy to make an alignment of values.

The dual purpose animal is bred for two purposes, both of which must be embodied in the animal form. This represents an average development, theoretically, or a combination of two special functions. For example, beef and milk, and mutton and wool represent the two commonly accepted dual purpose functions or standards. The equation of value must be measured in such animals by their specific structural development. Although it is recognized that high milk production, extreme speed, or unusual block tests are antagonized in two purpose animals because of the alteration of structure necessary to harmonize or equalize these two purposes, they have a place in animal production. Student judging should so depict every purpose, relation, structural development and special and combined functions that a perfectly clear analysis of these factors may be made before undertaking a decision in any class of animals. Otherwise gross errors may occur under the best of reasoning power. A broad working foundation, an accepted ideal, and a logical mind are herein extremely essential.

Chapter III. The Manifestations Of Form, Function, And Capacity

The practical stockman is not directly interested with the intricate mechanism and development of the animal organism, yet there are certain manifestations of form, function, and capacity which stamp the value of an animal in its various phases of use and development. The value of an animal to the stockman is largely determined by the formation of the anatomy of the bony framework, the muscular development, the digestive system, the circulatory system, the mammary organs, the reproductive system, and the nervous development. Because of the close association of these attributes, from the standpoint of the stockman, a deficiency or weakness in development of any one would retard growth and normal development in the individual and sacrifice what otherwise might be cardinal points in breed, type or class attainments. An analysis, therefore, of their utility value is important.

Bony Framework. — The bony framework is a measure of the height and weight or scale which will be attained by an animal. Unless an animal possesses a foundation or framework whereon the muscular system may normally develop the ultimate size at maturity will be materially decreased. The sleek-bodied colt, the short, round body of the calf and the small, early maturing hog are indicative of insufficient capacity as associated with bone development. The size which an animal attains can be no greater than the maximum number of structural units which are normally present in the framework. An animal may be forced on the right kinds of feeds and thus induce greater development. However, such a method of feeding would not always be (28)

MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT 29

prudent or profitable. In selecting live stock, therefore, special consideration should be given to the indications of normal development at maturity.

The size of the bone as exemplified in the canon of the horse, and in the leg of the steer, the hog, and the sheep are directly associated with the size and weight of an animal at maturity. The animal which inclines to fatten early in life before normal development has been reached does not possess the structural units to perfect normal maturity upon which the profits from live stock usually depend. Indications of the probable development are in evidence in the condition which an animal assumes as related to bone, muscle, and fat formation. The young animal or the matured animal low in condition indicate their probable maximum attainments by the character of the framework. While the spare, open development is characteristic only of the dairy animal, a certain degree of it is necessary in the other types in order that they may attain the maximum degree of size, form and finish. Early fattening qualities, except under certain specialized conditions, such as in the baby beef animal or other early market maturing qualifications, as fixed by farm practice, are antagonistic to maximum development. Animal attainments relating to size are measured almost entirely by the foundation structure imposed in the bony framework.

Muscular Development. — With the exception of the dairy cow and wool sheep, the value of domestic animals is directly or indirectly dependent on the degree of muscle formation. The value of the beef animal, the mutton sheep, and the fat or bacon hog is directly dependent on this attribute. The value of the draft horse, heavy and light harness horses, saddle horses and ponies are dependent on this qualification, yet in each the manifestation of it is developed in a different form of energy or work. In the dairy cow and the wool sheep the muscular development is of secondary importance because the usefulness of these animals is measured by their capacity to produce products not dependent on the degree of muscle formation. The dairy cow produces milk, the maximum degree of muscle and fat formation

30 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY

being directly antagonistic to the maximum degree of milk production. The wool sheep is measured in value by its output of wool, regardless of its value from the mutton standpoint. The value of the horse is measured in terms of muscular development, although the kind of work and its degree of attainment is greatly different from that expected in meat-producing animals. The character of the muscular system is a measure of work in some form, yet association with other attributes should be clearly fixed because of the final balance of the manifestations enumerated under form, function, and capacity.

Digestive System. — The digestive system of an animal is of specific importance because an animal grows and becomes useful to a degree dependent on the amount of food consumed and its elaboration or manifestation in the various forms of animal energy, whether it is meat, milk, wool, or horse power. The measure of value in an animal is therefore determined by the digestive capacity to a degree depending on the character of energy to be produced. The manifestation of a strong digestive system is evidenced in the length, depth and width of the barrel, this in turn being influenced largely by the maximum degree of development possible in the bony framework. The direct association of this attribute with constitution, vigor, and general capacity is readily apparent from an analysis of these various factors in detail.

Circulatory System. — The bony framework, the muscular development and the digestive system constitute the gross attainments necessary for an animal to assume shape and continue normal development when properly associated with the other life-giving functions. From the stockman's point of view there is nothing more important than the circulatory system on which life-giving depends directly, and in one instance the development of a specific function, namely, the milk-giving capacity of the dairy cow. In formulating the value of a dairy animal one of the chief requisites for consideration is the degree of development of the circulatory system, especially as evidenced in the mammary system. The elaboration of milk from the gross

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OR BREEDING CAPACITY 31

food products to the finished product is vitally connected with the circulatory system, as the blood carries the elements of milk elaboration. The stimulation received, therefore, from the blood supply measures quite accurately the capacity of an animal and the profits which will be obtained therefrom. Although the evidence of a strong blood supply is especially significant in the dairy animal, it is of no less importance in the animal which is used for draft, light harness or saddle work, or in those animals which are used directly for food-producing purposes. The blood supply and the energy which it carries in the way of assimilated food materials is all manifested in some specific way no matter what the character of work to be performed. The amount and continuity of work is thus measured by the circulatory system which carries the elements or products of energy to the specific place of use.