Why the nations are at war, the causes and issues of the great conflict; a graphic story of the nations involved, their history and former wars

Front matter

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Preface

" THE present state of things," said Dr. Johnson, in words that are as true to-day as when they were spoken, " is the consequence of the past " ; and he adds, " it is natural to inquire as to the sources of the good we enjoy or the evils we suffer. If we act only for ourselves, to neglect the study of history is not prudent ; if entrusted with the care of others, it is not just."

These words form a fitting prelude to the present work ; for it is its object to trace the course of events during the past century, to follow the footsteps of men in war and peace from that day of upheaval when mediaeval feudalism went down in disarray before the arms of the people in the French Revolution, and to find therein some explanation of the Great War of 1914.

In the first few chapters we have attempted to give as clearly and concisely as possible an account of the causes of this Great War in the first and second degree ; that is to say, to put before the reader, first, the ostensible reasons for its outbreak, and, secondly, the underlying causes — the actual events and the more or less intangible ideas floating in the mind of man — that made it possible for those ostensible reasons to be taken advantage of in the way they were.

In these first chapters we have, as was inevitable, relied almost entirely on the official papers of the various belligerent nations, the only real evidence obtainable ; and by the diHgent comparison and collation of these, both with themselves and with the contemporary daily press and the better-informed reviews, we trust that it will be found that we have arrived about as near the truth as it is possible to do within six months of the mobilization of Europe. Those who seek within these pages for ' secret history ' will be disappointed ; and we offer to such persons no apology, for ' secret history,' though it may have great

V fascination has very little permanent value and still less \ reliability.

The greater part of the remainder of the volume is taken up with the story of the past century, beginning, in fact, rather more than a century ago with the meteoric career of Napoleon, and seeking to show to what this led, and what effects it had upon the political evolution of mankind. The French Revolution stood midway between two epochs of history ; and before the world-wide war of 1914 had opened our eyes to the survival of barbarity and inhumanity in so-called cidture and civilization, we should have held that those two epochs were that of mediaeval barbarism and that of modern enlightenment. The Revolution exploded like a bomb in the midst of the self-satisfied aristocracy of the earlier social system and rent it into fragments which no hand could put together again ; popular government replaced autocratic and aristocratic government in France, and the armies of Napoleon spread those radical ideas throughout Europe until all oppressed peoples began to look upward with hope and see in the distance before them a haven of justice in the coming realm of human rights.

The new conceptions, introduced to the mass of mankind by the French Revolution, took time to disseminate themselves. The oppressed peoples had to fight their way upward into the light, to win their progress step by step to the heights of emancipation. It was a hard struggle. Time and again they were cast downward in their climb. The powers of privilege, of the ' divine right of kings,' fought hard to preserve their ascendancy, and only with discouraging slowness did the people move onward to the haven they so earnestly sought.

The story of this upward progress is the history of the nineteenth century, regarded from the special point of view of political progress and the development of human rights ; and it is that story, so full of meaning to us in the present vi

PREFACE

day, that we have told in this volume. The reader of these pages will be able to tell, for instance, how and why it has come about that while at the opening of the nineteenth century Great Britain and Germany, Russia and Austria were all leagued against France, the second decade of the twentieth found all the Powers of Europe in arms against Germany and Austria. He will see what all these countries have been through to make them what they are and to place them where they stand to-day ; he will learn how the little nations have fared — Belgium, Poland, the Balkan States — and of what great importance they are ; how Italy attained her freedom ; how France came through two further revolutions, and how the German empire was born. The story of Great Britain's progress during the hundred years that have elapsed since Waterloo is also sketched out, as well as that of her colonies and of the Far East in its bearings upon the present situation.

While the book was passing through the press, Mr. Eden Phillpotts published in the Daily Chronicle an article which appeared to be so appropriate as a closing chapter to this work that we decided to take advantage of his readiness to permit of its republication to incorporate it as a postscript. Mr. Phillpotts has not thereby, of course, assumed any responsibility for the remainder of the book.

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Chapter I

Dramatic Suddenness of the Outbreak : Widespread Influences : The Financial Crisis : Terrible Effects of War : The World involved : India and Great Britain's Colonies : Cost of Modern Warfare pp. 11-21

Chapter II The Causes Of The Great

EUROPEAN WAR

The Ultimatum to Serbia : Working for Peace Mobilization in Europe : The Russian Formula Great Britain's First Steps : Underlying Causes The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente : Germany'' s Complicity : Kaiser Wilhelm II : Neutrality of Italy : Germany^ s Inner Purpose : Russia's Part in the Cataclysm : France pp. 22-44

Chapter III The Cause Of Great Britain's

PARTICIPATION

The Neutrality of Belgium : Germany and Belgium in 1911 and 1913 ; Germany^s Change in 1914 ; Some Prophecies fulfilled : One Excuse for Invasion of Belgium : Another Excuse : The Declaration of War : Germany^ s Bid for British Neutrality : Luxemburg : Delivery of the British Ultimatum : ' A Scrap of Paper ' ; The Last Word : Japan : Turkey : Possible Additions to the Nations at War

Chapter IV

PAN-SLAVISM VERSUS PAN-GERMANISM Russia's Part in the Serbian Issue : Strength of the Russian Army : The Distribution of the Slavs :

A 1

Origin of Pan-Slavism : The Tsar''s Proclamation : The Teutons of Europe : Intermingling of Races : The Nations at War pp. 65-75

Chapter V

End of Medievalism and Beginning of Modernism The Age of Feudalism : Issues of the French Revolution : How Napoleon won Fame : Conditions in France and Germany : Austria and Italy : Spain and Poland : Russia and Turkey pp. 76-85

CHAPTER VI Its Effect on National Conditions finally

LED TO THE WaR OF 1914

The Campaign in Italy : The Victory at Marengo : Moreau wins Glory at Hohenlinden : Napoleon the Idol of France : The Consul made Emperor : The Code Napoleon : Campaign of 1805 ; Battle of Austerlitz : The Gains of the Empire : The Conquest of Prussia : Invasion of Poland : The Check at Eylau : Campaign of 1809 ; Great Battles around Vienna : Victory at Wagram : The Divorce of Josephine pp. 86-117

Chapter VII Nelson And Wellington, The

CHAMPIONS OF BRITAIN

End of the European Reign of Terror

The Battle of the Nile : Nelson at Copenhagen : Defeat of the Danes : Nelson at Trafalgar : Nelson wins and dies : The Campaign in Portugal : Oporto and Talavera : The French driven from Portugal : Wellington in Spain : Madrid occupied pp. 118-136

CONTENTS

Chapter VIII The Decline And Fall Of

NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE

Dawn of a New Era in Europe

The Kings and People of Spain : The French defeated and Napoleon in Command : The Triumph of Wellington : Napoleon's Fatal Enterprise : The Grand Army in Russia : Smolensk on Fire : The Fight at Borodino : Moscow occupied by the French : The Terror of Flame : Napoleon's Dread Dilemma : Winter in Full Fury : The Remnant of the Grand Army : Europe rises against the Corsican : Napoleon's Last Important Victory : The Last Stand at Leipzig : Napoleon exiled to Elba : The Hundred Days : End of Napoleon's Career pp. 137-158

CHAPTER IX Radical Changes in the Map of Europe

Map-making : Empire-building : Membership of the Congress : Reaction the Order of the Day : Brief Summary of Changes : Excesses of the Congress : The Germanic Confederation : How the other Countries fared : Character of the Work done : The Rights of the People pp. 159-170

Chapter X Further Results Of The Congress

The Holy Alliance and the World-wide Fight

FOR Freedom

The Grand Alliance : The Holy Alliance : Reaction and Rearrangement : Revolution in Spain and Naples : Work of the Alliance in Italy : The

Spanish Revolt put down : The Allies gain Freedom for Greece : Liberty for Spanish- America : The Birth of the Monroe Doctrine pp. 171-183

Chapter XI The Revolution Of 1830

Its Disintegrating Effect on Natural Conditions Reaction under Charles X ; " Down with the Bourbons " ; Louis Philippe on the Throne : Separation of Holland and Belgium : Popular Movements in Germany and Italy : Poland in Arms : Prosperity in Great Britain : An Intolerable Situation : Representation in Parliament : Lord RusselVs Great Speech : The Old House of Commons : The Struggle for Reform : How Suffrage was gained : The Corn Laws repealed pp. 184-202

Chapter XII Europe In Arms In 1848

Outbreak of Nineteenth- Century Democracy

Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity : Reform Outbreak in Paris : A Republic founded : Revolt in Germany and Austria : The Metternich Policy fails : The Struggle in Vienna and Berlin : A Federal Empire in Germany : Italy strikes for Freedom : A French Army occupies Rome : The Hungarian Revolution : Kossuth and the Magyars : How the Conflict ended pp. 203-215

Chapter XIII

Outcome of Slavic Ambitions in the Near East Turkey the ' Sick Man ' of Europe : Oppression of the Christians : England and France declare

CONTENTS

War : Invasion of the Crimea : The Siege of Sehastopol : Charge of the Light Brigade : The Gallant Six Hundred : Sebastopol taken : The Treaty of Paris pp. 216-227

CHAPTER XIV The Final Overthrow of Napoleonism

The Coup d'Etat of 1851 ; From President to Emperor : The Empire is Peace : War with Austria : The Austrians Advance : The Battle of Magenta : Possession of Lombardy : French Victory at Solferino : Treaty of Peace : Invasion of Mexico : End of Napoleon's Career pp. 228-242

CHAPTER XV Power of Austria broken

The Carbonari : Mazzini and Garibaldi : Cavour, the Statesman : The Invasion of Sicily : Occupation of Naples : Victor Emmanuel takes Command : Watchword of the Patriots : Garibaldi marches against Rome : The Naval Battle of Lissa : Final Act of Italian Unity pp. 243-254

CHAPTER XVI Beginnings of Modern World-Power

William I of Prussia : Bismarck's Early Career : The Schleswig-Holstein Question : Conquest of the Duchies : Bismarck s Wider Views : War forced on Austria : The War in Italy : Austrians Signal Defeat at Koniggratz : The Treaty of Prague : Germany after 1866 pp. 255-269

Chapter XVII

Birth of the German Empire and the French Republic French Unpreparedness : Discontent in France : Causes of Hostile Relations : War with Prussia declared : Self-deception of the French : First Meeting of the Armies : The Stronghold of Metz : Mars-la-Tour and Gravelotte : Napoleon III at Sedan : Surrender of Napoleon's Army : The Emperor a Captive — France a Republic : Bismarck refuses Intervention : Fall of the Fortresses : Paris is Besieged : Gambetta in Command : Defiant Spirit of the French : The Struggle continued : Operations before Paris : Fighting in the South : The War at an End pp. 270-300

Chapter XVIII Bismarck And The New German Empire

Building the Bulwarks of the Twentieth-Century

Nation

Bismarck as a Statesman : Uniting the German States : William I crowned at Versailles : A Significant Decade : The Problem of Church Power : Progress of Socialism : William II and the Resignation of Bismarck : Political and Industrial Conditions in Germany pp. 301-311

Chapter XIX Gladstone As An Apostle Of Reform

Great Britain a World-Power

Gladstone and Disraeli : Gladstone's Famous Budget : A New Reform Bill : Disraeli's Reform Measure : Irish Church Disestablishment : An Irish Land Bill : Desperate State of Ireland : The Coercion Bill : Wars in Africa : Home Rule for Ireland pp. 312-325

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XX Struggles of a New Nation

The Republic organized : The Commune of Paris : Instability of the Government : Thiers proclaimed President : Punishment of the Unsuccessful Generals : MacMahon a Royalist President : Grevy, Gambetta, and Boulanger : The Panama Canal Scandal : Despotism of the Army Leaders : The Dreyfus Case : Church and State : The Morocco Controversy

CHAPTER XXI The Colonizing Nations

Great Britain as a World-Power : Colonies in the Pacific Region : Colonization in Africa : British Colonies in Africa : The Mahdi Rebellion in Egypt : Gordon at Khartoum : Suppression of the Mahdi Revolt : Colonization in Asia : The British in India : Colonies in America : Development of Canada : Progress in Canada pp. 343-358

Chapter XXII The Open Door In China And Japan

Development of World-Power in the East

Warlike Invasions of China : Commodore Perry and his Treaty : Japan^s Rapid Progress : Origin of the Chino- Japanese War : The Position of Korea : Li Hung Chang and the Empress : How Japan began War : The War on the Sea : Conclusion of the War : Europe invades China : China^s Wonderful Progress : The Boxer Outbreak : Russian Designs on Manchuria : Japan begins War on Russia : The Armies meet : Port Arthur taken : Russian Fleet defeated : China becomes a Republic pp. 359-380

Chapter XXIII

TURKEY AND THE BALKAN STATES Checking the Dominion of the Turk in Europe The Story of Serbia : Turkey in Europe : The Bulgarian Atrocities : The Defence of Plevna : The Congress of Berlin : Hostile Sentiments of the Balkans : Incitement to War : Fighting begins : The Advance on Adrianople : Victories of the Allies : The Bulgarian Successes : Steps toward Peace : The War resumed : Siege of Scutari : Treaty of Peace : Albania : War between the Allies : The Final Settlement pp. 381-401