A class room logic

Front matter

H Warn

M

I ■

Preface

This treatise is an outgrowth of our class room work in logic.

It has been published in the hope of removing some of the difficulties which handicap the average student.

We trust that the language is simple and definite and that the illustrative exercises and diagrams may be helpful in making clear some of the more abstruse topics.

If a speedy review for examination is necessary, it is recommended that the briefer course as outlined on page 493 be followed and that the summaries closing each chapter be carefully read.

Only the fundamentals of deductive and inductive logic have received attention. Moreover emphasis has been given to those phases which appear to commend themselves because of their practical value.

Further than this we trust that the book may fulfill in some small way the larger mission of inspiring better thinking and, in consequence, of leading to a more serviceable citizenship.

Surely as civilization advances it is with the expectation of giving greater significance to the assumption "that man is a rational animal."

I am indebted to a number of writers on logic, notably to Mill, Lotze, Keynes, Hibben, Fowler, Aikins, Hyslop, Creighton and Jevons. I am likewise under obligation to

Vlll PREFACE

that large body of students who, by frankly revealing their difficulties, have given me a different point of view. For constructive criticism and definite encouragement I owe a personal debt of gratitude to Prof. Charles Gray Shaw of New York University, to Prof. Frank D. Blodgett of the Oneonta Normal School and to Prin. A. C. MacLachlan of the Jamaica Training School for Teachers.

G. H. McN.

City Training School for Teachers, Jamaica, N. Y. City.

October 3, 1914.

Table Of Contents

Page

Chapter 1. — The Scope and Nature of Logic ... 1

The Mind, 1. Logic Related to Other Subjects, 2. Logic Defined, 3. The Value of Logic to the Student, 5. Outline, 7. Summary, 7. Review Questions, 8. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 9.

Chapter 2. — Thought and Its Operation .... 10

The Knowing Mind Compared with the Thinking Mind, 10. Knowing by Intuition, 11. The Thinking Process, 12. Notions, Individual and General, 14. Knowledge and Idea as Related to the Notion, 15. The Logic of the Psychological Terms Involved in the Notion, 16. Thought in the Sensation and Percept, 18. Evolution and the Thinking Mind, 19. The Concept as a Thought Product, 21. The Judgment as a Thought Product, 22. Inference as a Thought Product, 24. Thinking and Apprehension, 24. Stages in Thinking, 25. Outline, 26. Summary, 27. Review Questions, 29. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 30.

Chapter 3. — The Primary Laws of Thought ... 32

Two Fundamental Laws, 32. The Law of Identity, 32. The Law of Contradiction, 35. The Law of Excluded Middle, 39. The Law of Sufficient Reason,

40. Unity of Primary Laws of Thought, 40. Outline,

41. Summary, 42. Illustrative Exercises, 43. Review Questions, 44. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 45.

ix

X CONTENTS

Page Chapter 4. — Logical Terms 47

Logical Thought and Language Inseparable, 47. Meaning of Term, 47. Categorematic and Syncategorematic Words, 48. Singular Terms, 49. General Terms, 49. Collective and Distributive Terms, 50. Concrete and Abstract Terms, 51. Connotative and Non-connotative Terms, 52. Positive and Negative Terms, 53. Contradictory and Opposite Terms, 53. Privative and Nego-positive Terms, 55. Absolute and Relative Terms, 56. Outline, 57. Summary, 57. Illustrative Exercises, 58. Review Questions, 59. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 60.

Chapter 5. — The Extension and Intension of Terms . 62

Two-fold Function of Connotative Terms, 62. Extension and Intension Defined, 63. Extended Comparison of Extension and Intension, 63. A List of Connotative Terms Used in Extension and Intension, 65. Other Forms of Expression for Extension and Intension, 66. Law of Variation in Extension and Intension, 66. Important Facts in Law of Variation, 69. Law of Variation Diagrammatically Illustrated, 70. Outline, 72. Summary, 72. Illustrative Exercises, 73. Review Questions, 75. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 76.

Chapter 6. — Definition 77

Importance, 77. The Predicables, 77. The Nature of a Definition, 82. Definition and Division Compared, 84. The Kinds of Definitions, 85. When the Three Kinds of Definitions are Serviceable, 87. The Rules of Logical Definition, 88. Terms Which Cannot be Defined Logically, 93. Definitions of Common Educational Terms, 94. Outline, 97. Summary, 98. Illustrative Exercises, 100. Review Questions, 102. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 103.

CONTENTS XI

Page Chapter 7. — Logical Division and Classification . . 105

Nature of Logical Division, 105. Logical Division Distinguished from Enumeration, 106. Logical Division as Partition, 107. Four Rules of Logical Division, 108. Dichotomy, 110. Classification Compared with Division, 112. Kinds of Classification, 113. Two Rules of Classification, 114. Use of Division and Classification, 114. Outline, 115. Summary 116. Review Questions, 117. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 118.

Chapter 8. — Logical Propositions 120

The Nature of Logical Propositions, 120. Kinds of Logical Propositions, 121. The Four Elements of a Categorical Proposition, 122. Logical and Grammatical Subject and Predicate Distinguished, 125. The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions, 126. Propositions which do not Conform to Logical Type, 129. Propositions not Necessarily Illogical, 138. The Relation between Subject and Predicate, 140. Outline, 150. Summary, 151. Illustrative Exercises, 154. Review Questions, 156. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 157.

Chapter 9. — Immediate Inference — Opposition . . .159

The Nature of Inference, 159. Immediate and Mediate Inference, 159. The Forms of Immediate Inference, 161. (1) Opposition, 161.

Chapter 10. — Immediate Inference (Continued) . . 170

Immediate Inference by Obversion, 170. Immediate Inference by Conversion, 176. Immediate Inference by Contraversion, 181. Epitome of the Four Processes of Immediate Inference, 182. Inference by Inversion, 183. Outline, 183. Summary, 183. Illustrative Exercises, 185. Review Questions, 189. Problems for Original Thought and Investigation, 190.

Xll CONTENTS

Page Chapter 11. — Mediate Inference — The Syllogism . . 192 Inference and Reasoning, 192. The Syllogism, 192. The Rules of the Syllogism, 193. Rules of Syllogism Explained, 194. Aristotle's Dictum, 208. Canons of the Syllogism, 209. Mathematical Axioms, 210. Outline, 210. Summary, 211. Illustrative Exercises, 213. Review Questions, 215. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 216.

Chapter 12. — Figures and Moods of the Syllogism . 218 The Four Figures of the Syllogism, 218. The Moods of the Syllogism, 221. Testing the Validity of the Moods, 223. Special Canons of the Four Figures, 226. Special Canons Related, 233. Mnemonic Lines, 234. Relative Value of the Four Figures, 239. Outline, 240. Summary, 241. Illustrative Exercises, 243. Review Questions, 245. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 245.

Chapter 13. — Incomplete Syllogisms and Irregular

Arguments . . . . . . 247

Enthymeme, 247. Epicheirema, 249. Polysyllogisms. Prosyllogism — Episyllogism, 250. Sorites, 251. Irregular Arguments, 258. Outline, 259. Summary, 260. Review Questions, 261. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 261.

Chapter 14. — Categorical Arguments Tested According

to Form 263

Arguments of Form and Matter, 263. Order of Procedure in a Formal Testing of Arguments, 263. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Arguments which are Complete and whose Premises are Logical, 265. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Completed Arguments, one or both of whose Premises are Illogical, 269. Incomplete and Irregular Arguments, 277. Common Mistakes of the Student, 281. Outline, 281. Summary, 282. Review Questions, 283. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 285.

CONTENTS XI 11

Page

Chapter 15. — Hypothetical and Disjunctive Arguments

Including the Dilemma . . . 288

Three Kinds of Arguments, 288. Hypothetical Arguments, 288. Antecedent and Consequent, 289. Two Kinds of Hypothetical Arguments, 290. Rule and Two Fallacies of Hypothetical Argument, 291. Hypothetical Arguments Reduced to Categorical Form, 293. Illustrative Exercises Testing Hypothetical Arguments of All Kinds, 297. Disjunctive Arguments, 302. Two Kinds of Disjunctive Arguments, 302. First Disjunctive Rule, 303. Second Disjunctive Rule, 306. Reduction of Disjunctive Argument, 307. The Dilemma, 308. Four Forms of Dilemmatic Arguments, 309. The Rule of Dilemma, 311. Illustrative Exercises Testing Disjunctive and Dilemmatic Argument, 311. Ordinary Experiences Related to Disjunctive Proposition and Hypothetical Argument, 313. Outline, 315. Summary, 316. Review Questions, 318. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 320.

Chapter 16. — The Logical Fallacies of Deductive

Reasoning 322

A Negative Aspect, 322. Paralogism and Sophism, 322. A Division of the Deductive Fallacies, 323. General Divisions Explained, 325. Fallacies of Immediate Inference, 326. Fallacies in Language (Equivocation), 328. Fallacies in Thought (Assumption), 334. Outline, 344. Summary, 345. Illustrative Exercises in Testing Arguments in Both Form and Meaning, 349. Review Questions, 350. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 353.

Chapter 17. — Inductive Reasoning 355

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Distinguished, 355. The "Inductive Hazard," 356. Complexity of the Problem of Induction, 358. Various Conceptions of

XIV CONTENTS

Page

Induction, 359. Induction and Deduction Contiguous Processes, 360. Induction an Assumption, 361. Universal Causation, 361. Uniformity of Nature, 362. Inductive Assumptions Justified, 364. Three Forms of Inductive Research, 365. Induction by Simple Enumeration, 367. Induction by Analogy, 368. Induction by Analysis, 373. Perfect Induction, 375. Traduction, 377. Outline, 379. Summary, 380. Review Questions, 383. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 384.

Chapter 18. — Mill's Five Special Methods of Observation and Experiment .... 386

Aim of Five Methods, 386. Method of Agreement, 387. Method of Difference, 393. The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, 397. The Method of Concomitant Variations, 402. The Method of Residues, 406. General Purpose and Unity of Five Methods, 409. Outline, 411. Summary, 412. Review Questions, 414. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 416.

Chapter 19. — Auxiliary Elements in Induction. Observation — Experiment — Hypothesis . 418

Foundation of Inductive Generalizations, 418. Observation, 419. Experiment, 419. Rules for Logical Observation and Experiment, 420. Common Errors of Observation and Experiment, 423. The Hypothesis, 425. Induction and Hypothesis Distinguished, 426. Hypothesis and Theory Distinguished, 427. The Requirements of a Permissible Hypothesis, 427. Uses of Hypothesis, 429. Characteristics Needed by Scientific Investigators, 431. Outline, 432. Summary, 433. Review Questions, 435. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 435.

CONTENTS XV

Page Chapter 20. — Logic in the Class Room .... 437 Thought is King, 437. Special Functions of Induction and Deduction, 438. Two Types of Minds, 438. Conservatism in School, 439. The Method of the Discoverer, 440. Real Inductive Method not in Vogue in Class Room Work, 444. As a Method of Instruction, Deduction Superior, 446. Conquest, not Knowledge, the Desideratum, 447. Motivation as Related to Spirit of Discovery, 449. Discoverer's Method Adapted to Class Room Work, 450. Question and Answer Method not Necessarily One of Discovery, 457. Outline, 458. Summary, 459. Review Questions, 461. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 462.

Chapter 21. — Logic and Life 463

Logic Given a Place in a Secondary Course, 463. Man's Supremacy Due to Power of Thought, 463. Importance of Progressive Thinking, 465. Necessity of Right Thinking, 466. Indifferent and Careless Thought, 467. The Rationalization of the World of Chance, 468. The Rationalization of Business and Political Sophistries, 470. The Rationalization of the Spirit' of Progress, 471. A Rationalization of the Attitude Toward Work, 474. The Logic of Success, 475. Outline, 477. Summary, 478. Review Questions, 479. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation, 480.

General Exercises in Testing Categorical Arguments . 481

General Exercises in Testing Hypothetical, Disjunctive

and dllemmatic arguments . . 484

Examination Questions for Training Schools and'Col-

leges 486

Bibliography 492

Outline of Briefer Course 493

Index 495

Chapter 1. The Scope And Nature Of Logic

1. THE MIND.

As to the true conception of matter the world is ignorant. Yet when asked, "What does matter do ?" the reply is, "Matter moves, matter vibrates." Moreover, relative to the exact nature of mind, the world is likewise ignorant. But to the question, "What does mind do?" the response comes, "The Mind knows, the mind feels, the mind wills.'' The mind has ever manifested itself in these three ways. Because of this three-fold function it is easy to think of the mind as being separated into distinct compartments, each constituting an independent activity. This is erroneous. The mind is a living unit having three sides but never acting one side at a time. When the mind knows it also feels in some way and wills to some extent. To illustrate : Music is heard and one knows it to be Rubinstein's Melody in F. The execution being good one feels pleasure. That the pleasurable state may be augmented one wills a listening attitude. For analytical purposes the psychologists have a way of naming the state of mind from the predominating manifestation.

2. LOGIC RELATED TO OTHER SUBJECTS.

What the mind is may in time be answered satisfactorily by philosophy; what the mind does is described by psychology ; what the mind knows is treated by logic. Again: the mind as a whole furnishes the subject matter for psychology, whereas logic is concerned with the mind knowing, aesthetics with the mind feeling, and ethics with the mind willing. Ethics attempts to answer the question, "What is right?" aesthetics, "What is beautiful?" and logic, "What is true?"

Though both psychology and logic treat of the knowing aspect of the mind, yet the fields are not identical. The former deals with the process of the knowing mind as a whole, while the latter is concerned mainly with the product of the knowing mind when it thinks. To be specific: The mind knows when it becomes aware of anything, moreover, this condition of awareness appears in two ways : first, immediately or by intuition; second, after deliberation or by thinking. For example, one may know immediately or by intuition that the object in the hand is a lead pencil, but when requested to state the length of the pencil there is deliberation involving a comparison of the unknown length with a definite measure. It may now finally be asserted that the pencil is six inches long. When we know without hesitation the process involved is intuition, whereas when the knowledge comes after some sort of comparison the mental act is called thinking. It, therefore, becomes the business of psychology to deal with both intuition and thinking while logic devotes its attention to thinking only, and even in this field the work of logic is more or less indirect. The specific scope of logic is the product of thinking or thought.* What are the

♦Note. Sometimes thinking and thought are used interchangeably. This is confusing. Properly, " thinking " is always a process of the knowing mind while " thought " is the product of this process, just as the flour of the gristmill is the product of the grinding process.

Logic Related to Other Subjects 3

forms of thought? What are the laws of thought? Are the several thoughts true ? These are the questions which logic is supposed to answer.

For the logician thought has two sources, his own mind and the mind of others. In the latter case thought becomes accessible through the medium of language. There is in consequence a close connection between logic, the science of thought, and grammar, the science of language. Because of this near relation logic is sometimes called the "grammar of thought/'

To study any science properly one must have thoughts and since logic is the science of all thought the subject may be regarded as the science of sciences.

3. LOGIC DEFINED.

"Logic is the science of thought." This definition commonly given is too brief to be helpful. Should not a definition of any subject represent a working basis upon which one may build with some knowledge of what the structure is to be? The following, a little out of the ordinary, seems to supply this condition: Logic as a science makes known the laws and forms of thought and as an art suggests conditions which must be fulfilled to think rightly.

In justification of the latter definition it may be argued that it covers the topics usually treated by logicians. It is said that a science teaches us to know while an art teaches us to do. As a science logic teaches us to know certain laws which underlie right thinking. For example, the law of identity which makes possible all affirmative judgments, such as "Some men are wise/' "All metals are elements," etc. Likewise as a science logic acquaints us with certain universal forms to which thought shapes itself, such as definitions, classifications, inductions, deductions. Further, logic lays down definite rules which lead to right thinking. To wit: Because it is true of a part of a class it should not be assumed that it is true of the whole of that class: or, in short, do not distribute an undistributed term.

A possible profit to the student may result from a study of certain authentic definitions herewith subjoined:

(i) "Logic is the science of the laws of thought." Jevons.

(2) "Logic is the science which investigates the process of thinking." Creighton.

(3) "Logic as a science aims to ascertain what are the laws of thought; as an art it aims to apply these laws to the detection of fallacies or for the determination of correct reasoning." Hyslop.

(4) "Logic is the art of thinking." Watts.

(5) "Logic is the science and also the art of thinking." Whateley.

(6) "Logic is the science of the formal and necessary laws of thought." Hamilton.

(7) "Logic is the science of the regulative laws of the human understanding." Ueberweg.

(8) "Logic treats of the nature and of the laws of thought." Hibben.

(9) "Logic may be defined as the science of the conditions on which correct thoughts depend, and the art of attaining to correct and avoiding incorrect thoughts." Fowler.

Logic Defined 5

(10) "Logic is the science of the operations of the understanding which are subservient to the estimation of evidence." Mill.

(n) "Logic may be briefly described as a body of doctrines and rules having reference to truth." Bain.

It would seem as if there were as many different definitions as there are books on the subject. This is due partly to the disposition of the older logicians to ignore the art of logic and partly to the difficulty of giving in a few words a satisfactory description of a broad subject. In the fundamentals of logical doctrine present-day authorities virtually agree.

4. THE VALUE OF LOGIC TO THE STUDENT.

Logic is rapidly coming into favor as a major subject in institutions devoted to educational theory. Some of the reasons for this change of attitude are herewith subjoined:

(i) Logic should stimulate the thought powers. This is the age of the survival of the thinker. The fact that the man who thinks best is the man who thinks much and carefully will be accepted by those who believe that practice makes perfect. "One needs only to observe the average commuter to conclude that a large percent, of our business men read too much and think too little." "Much readee and no thinkee" was the reply of a Chinaman when asked his opinion of the doings of the average American. "We as a people are newspaper mad, reading for entertainment, seldom for mental improvement."

(2) Logic aims to secure correct thought. Are not many of the sins and most of the failures in this world due to incorrect thinking?

(3) Logic should train to clear thinking. It would be difficult to estimate the loss of energy to the brain worker because he has not the power to think clearly. Maximum efficiency is impossible with a befogged brain. How discouraging it is to the student to attempt to get from the paragraph the thought of the author, who in trying to be profound succeeds in being profoundly abstruse. There is a probable need for broad, deep thoughts, but these when placed in a text book should be sharpened to a point.

(4) Logic should aid one to estimate aright the statements and arguments of others. This is of especial value to the teacher who is constrained to teach largely from text books. Because it is found in a book is not proof positive that it is true. Why should we assume that the book is infallible when we know that the man behind the book is fallible?

(5) Logic insists on definite, systematic procedure. To be logical is to be businesslike. A study of logic would, no doubt, benefit our churches and parliamentary orders as well as our schools.

(6) Logic demands lucid, pointed, accurate expression. How we would increase our working efficiency could we but express our thoughts in an attractive and interesting manner. To listen to the speeches of some of our great and good men who are concerned in directing the "ship of state" is sufficient argument that the American schools need more logic.

The Value of Logic to the Student 7

(7) Logic is especially adapted to a general mental training. Despite the swing of the pendulum of public opinion toward the bread-and-butter side of life, there are many of high repute who claim that for the sake of that mental acumen which distinguished the Greek from his contemporaries we cannot afford to sacrifice everything on the altar of commercialism.

(8) Logic worships at the shrine of truth and adds to our store of knowledge. . What has aided the world more in its march onward than this deep-seated passion for truth and what has impeded it more than that vain and wanton indifference to truth which brought to the world its darkest age?

The Scope and Nature of Logic.

(1) The Mind.

Three aspects.

Unity of

(2) Logic Related to Other Subjects.

Mental philosophy, psychology, logic.

Psychology, logic, aesthetics, ethics. Two ways of knowing.

Special province of logic.

Logic and language.

A science of sciences.

(3) Logic Defined.

A general definition.

A more satisfactory definition.

A list of authentic definitions.

(4) The Value of Logic to the Student.

Eight reasons for its study.

(1) The aspects of the mind are knowing, feeling and willing.

The mind is a living unit and never knows without feeling in some way and willing to some extent.

(2) What the mind is must be answered by philosophy; what the mind does by psychology and what the mind knows by logic.

Psychology treats of the mind as a whole, logic of the mind knowing, aesthetics of the mind feeling and ethics of the mind willing. Ethics answers the question, What is right ? Aesthetics, What is beautiful? Logic, What is true?

The standpoint of logic is not identical with any particular portion of psychology.

The mind knows in two ways : (a) by intuition, (b) by thinking. Thinking is a process — thought a product. Logic deals indirectly with the former and directly with the latter.

Generally speaking, logic is a systematic study of thought. For the logician thought has two sources : (a) his own mind and (b) spoken or written language.

Because of the ambiguity of language logic has much to do with it as a faulty vehicle of thought.

(3) Logic as a science makes known the laws and forms of thought and as an art suggests conditions which must be fulfilled to think rightly. Author.

"Logic may be defined as the science of the conditions on which correct thoughts depend, and the art of attaining to correct and avoiding incorrect thoughts." Fowler.

In the fundamentals of logical doctrine present day logicians virtually agree.

(4) Logic should stimulate the thought powers; secure correct and clear thinking; aid in the estimation of arguments; inspire definite, systematic procedure; demand lucid, pointed, accurate expresssion and be especially adapted to general mental discipline.

Logic adds to our store of knowledge and develops a passion for the truth.

(1) Explain and illustrate the three ways in which the mind may manifest itself.

(2) Illustrate the fact that the mind acts in unity.

(3) Show briefly how logic is related to mental philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, ethics and grammar.

(4) Illustrate the two ways of knowing.

(5) Distinguish between thinking and thought.

(6) Give a general definition of logic. Why is this definition unsatisfactory?

(7) What are the two sources of thought?

(8) Why are logic and language so closely related?

(9) Give that definition of logic which best satisfies you.

(10) Summarize the benefits which you hope to derive from your study of logic.

(11) Why should teachers be clear thinkers?

(12) Why should teachers be especially on guard against incorrect statements of all kinds?

(13) Show how logic might be of assistance to the business man.

(1) Prove that there is nothing real in the world save the mind itself.

(2) "Logic is concerned primarily with how we ought to think and only in a secondary way with how we actually think." Explain this quotation.

(3) Prove that there is no such thing as intuitive knowing.

(4) Is there any difference between knowledge and thoughts? Illustrate.

(5) Show by illustrations that the English language is ambiguous.

(6) Prove by concrete illustration that this is the age of the survival of the thinker.

(7) Which is the more harmful: falsehood mixed with truth or unadulterated falsehood? Give reasons.

(8) Give a concrete example of incorrect thinking.

(9) Show that wrong thinking leads to wrong doing.

(10) To be worth while must every subject have a practical value ?

(11) "The 20th century virtue is a passion for truth." Prove the truth of this.

Chapter 2. Thought And Its Operation

1. THE KNOWING MIND COMPARED WITH THE THINK- ING MIND.

In the preceding chapter we were told that the mind may know in two ways (i) by intuition and (2) by thinking. It is thus implied that the knowing mind includes the thinking mind plus intuition. Thinking always involves knowing, but knowing need not involve thinking, and when some logicians maintain that to know a thing one must think it, there is danger of being misled. They mean by this that in order to know anything in a permanent and highly serviceable way one must think it. All animals know, even such a stupid one as the oyster, and yet one would hardly give an oyster credit for thinking. Only the higher orders of animal life think. Some argue that the power is confined exclusively to the human family. This opinion is debatable. If the claimant means by thinking, reasoning then his ground is well taken. But if he is willing to give to thinking a broader content, then he has little defense for his stand. However, attach as broad I a meaning to thinking as the derivation of the word will I permit and even then it is a narrower term than knowing. Thinking plus intuition equals knowing, and in intuition there is probably no thinking.

Knowing by Intuition II

2. KNOWING BY INTUITION.

It has been aff rmed that intuition is the process involved when the mind knows instantly*

(i) As I raise my eyes a figure comes to view. My mind knows instantly that it is the figure three. (2) The ear catches immediately a tune which is being sung in the room below. Without deliberation the mind recognizes the tune as America. The mind may thus know by intuition through any one of the five senses. These are the wires of connection between the outer world and the mind within and transmission over these wires may be instantaneous or intuitive. This is not all. (3) My mind may center its attention on itself and may recognize there a mental picture or image of a pet dog. Since this activity is without any apparent deliberation the process must: be intuitive. To define intuitive knowledge as that which comes to the mind through the senses only is incorrect, as it leaves out altogether the knowledge the mind may obtain of its own activity as in illustration "(3)."

Knowledge is anything known. Intuitive knowledge is knowledge which comes to the mind immediately by direct observation. The field for intuitive knowledge may be the external world or the internal world though, of course, the former is the more common ground. It is here that the mind by intuition secures the most of its raw material which, through the process of thinking, is worked over into a connected, unified system of lasting value.

•Intuitive knowing might be termed habitual knowing.

The intuitions are the beginning and the basis of ail knowledge, and knowledge gained by intuition is the basis of all thinking.

3. THE THINKING PROCESS.

It is claimed that think comes from the same root as thick. From this one would conclude that the process of thinking is virtually a process of thickening. Surely as one thinks he enriches or thickens his knowledge. As one thinks percepts into concepts and concepts into judgments he makes richer in meaning the various notions concerned. Thinking is largely a matter of pressing many into one: of linking together the disconnected fragments of the conscious field.

Thinking is the deliberative process of affirming or denying connections.

The same idea may be expressed in a variety of ways as the following indicate.

( i) "Thinking is the conscious adjustment of a means to an end in problematic situations." Miller.

(2) "To think is to designate an object through a mark or attribute or what is the same thing, to determine a subject through a predicate." Bowen.

(3) "Thought is the comprehension of a thing under a general notion or attribute." Wm. Hamilton.

(4) "To think is to make clear through concepts the perceived objects." Dressier.

In the foregoing definitions it is implied that thinking is a connecting or thickening process. In all forms of

The Thinking Process 13

thinking from the simplest to the most complex the knowing mind hunts for some basis of connection and having found it thinks the relationship into a unified whole.

The thinking process is the digestive process of the mind. Much as the digestive organs assimilate the food stuff of the physical world, so the thinking organ assimilates the food stuff of the mental world.

Illustrations of the Thinking Process :

(1) The child is unable to explain the meaning of "hocus-pocus" as it occurs in the question, "What hocus-pocus is this ?" The child mind is unable to establish any connection between the word and its real meaning. In short, is unable to think into it a meaning; it therefore becomes necessary for the teacher to establish some basis of connection and this he does by suggesting nonsense as a synonym.