The high school; its function, organization and administration

Book i Gcpightfl?

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

ITS FUNCTION

ORGANIZATION AND

ADMINISTRATION

BY

JOHN ELBERT STOUT

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION CORNELL COLLEGE, IOWA

WITH INTRODUCTION

BY LOTUS D. COFFMAN, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

Copyright, 19 14, By D. C. Heath & Co.

NOV 25 I9K

£o TTty ZtTot^er

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress

Preface

The American high school has in a new sense become the school of all the people. It is here that a constantly increasing proportion of our young people receive their final training for the social duties and opportunities that await them. In order to meet the demands made upon it, the high school is under the necessity of redefining its aims. This requires a careful examination of the means employed — curriculum, organization, and teaching. Reorganization is demanded and it should result in both progress and stability. Traditions should not be allowed to stand in the way of necessary readjustments, nor should the glamour of things new lead us to engage in hasty and ill-advised experiments.

This volume is an attempt to state the principles that should guide in the process of reorganization. The author has felt the need of some such treatment during several years of service as high school teacher and principal. More immediately the work is the outgrowth of courses in school administration given for prospective high school teachers. It is intended primarily for the use of students of education in normal schools and colleges, and for teachers and principals of limited experience. It is hoped that it may possess some value also for all high school workers who feel the need of reorganization in high school education.

Part I deals with the function of the high school. Means cannot be intelligently chosen or wisely used in the absence of clearly defined aims that will actually serve as guides in practice. In the belief that generalized aims do not serve as useful guides in the daily work of the school, the several points of view from which the education of youth should be regarded have been emphasized and discussed in detail.

vi PREFACE

The work of the secondary school has been viewed heretofore quite exclusively from the standpoint of intellectual development. Physical needs, employment of leisure time, work interests, social adjustments, all need to be taken into account in any discussion of the education of youth. These various viewpoints have been given rather full treatment in order to make clear the true function of the high school. Throughout Part I the social needs and interests of youth have been stressed.

The needs and interests of girls have not received at the hands of the school the discriminative attention they deserve. Secondary schools, so long exclusively boys' schools, have not until very recently made any readjustments to meet the requirements of girls. In view of this, a chapter has been given to the discussion of the education of girls.

Part II is devoted to questions of organization and administration. In the discussion of the intellectual organization, the high school curriculum is examined from the standpoint of its historical development, and the influences responsible for the present status are pointed out. The value of a curriculum, however, cannot be judged alone by the subjects it contains. The actual subject matter used and its organization for teaching purposes are the important things to be considered, hence they have received the emphasis of attention.

The method employed in the treatment of this topic is to point out and discuss the criteria, both psychological and social, that should be employed in selecting and organizing material. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the subject matter of each field. The social studies, science, and English have been treated more fully than the other fields because of the conviction that these should contribute the chief means of secondary education.

Scarcely second in importance to proper selection of subject matter is the organization of it into a workable

PREFACE vii

whole. Many high school curriculums lack such organization and unity. The concluding chapter in this section is devoted to a discussion of the organization of the curriculum. The small high school receives special consideration.

The social organization of the high school is viewed from the standpoint of its three-fold relation — to the curriculum, to training in social efficiency, and to school government. The class-room group is regarded as the center around which the social life of the school should be organized. The social character of the school is made prominent and means are suggested for its organization in such a way that it may serve its purpose in the socializing process.

I am under special obligations to my wife, Grace Farwell Stout, for valuable assistance in the preparation of the book. Her assistance both in the plan and in matters of detailed treatment has made publication possible.

J. E. S.

Contents

Editor's Introduction xxi

Chapter I — Changing Social and Educational Conditions i

Growing interest in secondary education — Growth of the high school — General causes of growth — Demand for readjustments — Attempt of the school to minister to all classes — Girls constitute majority enrolled — Changes in school largely in externals — Changes outside the school

— Changes in industry — Problems of human welfare arising

— Attention being given to these problems — New civic conditions — Changes in the home — New relationships in the home — ; The child and the home — Importance of changes outside the school — Social changes as related to the work of the school — General causes for failure to make readjustments — Unprecedented interest in education — Too much emphasis on the articulation of the work of the schools

— Resulting in neglect of those who drop out of school — This class of students require more attention — Failure now more generally recognized — Influence of intelligent interest on the part of the people — Education being denned in terms of social efficiency — Restatement of aim and reorganization of means demanded.

Part I

THE FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Chapter II — Factors Determining Function ... 14

New factors determining function — Large proportion of students drop out of school — This fact calls for readjustments — Community demands upon the school becomx CONTENTS

ing specific — Nature of these demands — Demands arising out of increased appreciation of — The educational significance of adolescence — Multiplicity of demands give rise to conflicting interests — Criterion for determining the legitimacy of a demand upon the school — Aim cannot be stated in old terminology — Aim defined in terms of social efficiency — Necessity for an analysis of the term — Points of view from which to regard the work of the school — Physical needs must be taken into account — Necessity for training in leisure occupation — Vocational needs and interests considered — Training in civic efficiency demanded — Function of preparing for higher institutions — Peculiar needs and interests of girls demand consideration — Statement of aim must include these points of view.

Chapter III — The Physical Aspects of Education 23

Education has had too narrow meaning — Significance of the physical aspects — The school must educate for health — Large responsibility resting upon the high school — Two examples cited — The "white plague" — The social evil — Solution to be found in right type of education — The importance of intelligence in matters of sex functions — Significance of normal physical development — Not only health but physical efficiency — Habits of right living and motor control — Practical difficulties to be recognized and overcome.

Chapter IV — Demands for Vocational Training and Guidance 31

Majority enter gainful occupations on or before completing high school — Pupils leave school because of vocational interests — These interests largely instinctive — School should render them intelligent — Objections to vocational education considered — High school not to specialize but should develop and refine vocational interests — Preparation for gaining a living a vital matter — Importance of right attitude toward work — Interest of parents in vocational guidance — Two reasons for vocational guidance in the high school — Points of contact between home and school — Social significance of vocational education — A means of pro-

CONTENTS xi

tection to society — A means of constructive social endeavor — Value of intelligent choice of occupation — The high school as an agency for vocational education — Special types of schools — An administrative problem — Pedagogical considerations — Various needs of pupils must be taken into account — Unfortunate results of class segregation — A final objection to special types of schools.

Chapter V — Preparation for Leisure Occupation 44

Problem of rightly employing leisure time — More enlightened view concerning play activities — Mutual relation of work and play — The larger significance of play — The adolescent and leisure occupation — Old modes of leisure occupation discredited — Demand for guidance in leisure occupation — Situation gives rise to an educational problem — Negative attitude of the school — This must give way to a constructive policy — Interests of the community considered — Present means for guidance inadequate — Futility of voluntary organizations — The school the only efficient agency — The problem in the light of future social demands — Efforts to secure to workers more leisure time and its significance — Relation of leisure occupation to social progress.

Chapter VI — Institutional and Other Types of Social Efficiency 55

Modes of social expression other than vocational — Adolescent social interests — Efficiency for participation in community life — Importance of ability to cooperate in social endeavor — Home does not provide adequate social environment — Preparation for civic efficiency — Increasing importance of governmental functions — Demand for new civic spirit and new social means — Relation of government to a social democracy — New meaning of popular government — Problem arising out of separation of church and school — Religion a social asset — Education must take this fact into account — Problems arising out of the decline of the economic importance of the home — Results of the school taking over functions previously performed by the home — xii CONTENTS

The problem of the home a social problem — Miscellaneous social activities — The significance of the passing of pioneer conditions — Social forces more and more the product of the school.

Chapter VTI — Preparation for College 60

Demands for higher education — Function of the high school in this relation — Mutual interests of lower and higher schools — Lack of coordination in work of lower and higher institutions — Difficulties in the high school — In the college — Difficulties augmented by failure of higher institutions to make readjustments — Fitness for college includes more than mere intellectual ability — Social readjustments demanded — College has different methods of supervision — Students find habits acquired in high school inadequate — Closer cooperation of two types of schools needed — Readjustments called for on the part of the high school — On the part of the college — Radical difference in social life of the two institutions — Responsibility of the high school — The college also has its task — The question of morals in college lif e — The demand of the college for physical efficiency — Guidance in the selection of a college course — Necessity for modification in scholastic requirements — College must cease to judge high school by single standard — Demand for larger recognition of common interests.

Chapter VIII — The Education of Girls 78

The high school must more fully meet the needs of girls — Reasons for neglect in the education of girls — View taken of the education of women — Application of previous discussion — Interests and mental attitude of girls — Physical needs — Education and health — The problem a difficult one — Two means at the command of the school — Education and home keeping — New social demands upon women — Social participation and personal development — Training for civic efficiency — Training for organized social effort — The school should be positive in its influence — The duty of the high school — Readjustments demanded.

CONTENTS xiii

Part II Organization And Administration Of The High School

A. The Intellectual Organization Chapter IX — The Curriculum 88

Curriculum chief means at the command of the school — Present neglect of this means — Causes of neglect — Importance of selection and organization of material — The problem one of reconstruction — Demand for proper criteria in revaluations — Accounting for subject-matter now in use — Traditional influences — Influence of teachers — Teachers in higher institutions have exerted the major influence — Qualifications of teachers in this relation — Character and influence of social demands — Social demands not merely social sanction — Present curriculums regarded from the standpoints of subjects and subject-matter — Relative not absolute values must be considered — Introduction of new subjects has resulted in confusion — A curriculum judged by its required subjects — Also by its electives — Value of a subject determined by its position in the course of study — A curriculum judged by actual subject-matter used — Tests applied to subjects and subject-matter.

Chapter X — Selection and Organization of Material 102

Changes needed in subject-matter — Educational practice in the high school has not kept pace with theory — Importance of emphasis on the personal factor — Interests of adolescents chiefly social — Importance of social stimuli — Social demands should not be allowed to interfere with the chief duty of the school — Social demands furnish specific criteria for selection of material — Different social demands in different communities — Work in the St. Louis schools as example — Subject-matter to be selected for its content value — Material must be organized for teaching purposes — Mind of the learner should determine type of organizaxiv CONTENTS

tion — Some traditional subjects suffer from lack of proper organization — New subjects not free from same objection.

Chapter XI —The Social Studies m

Value of the social studies — Unfortunate selections of material — Reasons for this — Too much emphasis on political history — Chief interests of historical peoples require more attention — Vocational interests and activities

— Artistic appreciation and achievements — Educational systems furnish valuable material — Subject-matter must all be within the range of interests and capacities of learners

— Civics and economics viewpoints from which to select material — Economics should deal with present problems — Problems of most immediate concern should be selected — Practical character of civics — Functions of government should receive emphasis — Importance of local government

— Too much attention has been given to governmental machinery — Facts regarding local government — Instruction should be concrete and practical — Importance of study of current events — Social studies furnish standpoint for selecting material in other fields.

Chapter XII — Material Science 125

Importance of knowledge of science — Unsatisfactory results in science teaching — Reasons for unsatisfactory results — Unfortunate influence of the "disciplinary" conception — Influence of scientists has been detrimental — Science material should not be regarded from the standpoint of the specialist — Needs of learner determine character of material and organization — Science instruction should increase power in control — Material should be chosen for its content value — Practical values should receive emphasis — Instruction should furnish motive for learning — Knowledge of environment — Science instruction and vocational interests — Preparation for vocational activities — Science instruction and right attitudes — Development of social perceptions — Scientific spirit is the social spirit — Need of emphasis on the practical — Material needs reorganization — Importance of proper organization.

CONTENTS xv

Chapter XIII — English 141

Place of English in the curriculum — Given an important place only recently — Influence of "formal discipline" — Influence of higher institutions — Result of this influence — Results in instruction unsatisfactory — Two aspects of the subject, form and content — English instruction should furnish proper social environment — Emphasis upon content rather than upon form value — Interests and capacities of students as related to material used — Content must include more than mere literary content — Importance of use of current literature — Pupils should be encouraged to read widely — One aim of teaching to inculcate habit of reading — English instruction should prepare for leisure occupation Correct forms of expressions to be emphasized — School must furnish motives for correct forms of expression — Training in expression should be related to present needs — Oral composition should receive more attention — Instruction in composition should be practical — Importance of dramatic representation — Wide reading increases power of expression — Necessity for correlation of English and other work of the school.

Chapter XIV — Foreign Languages and Mathematics 158

Foreign Languages. — Important place occupied by foreign language — Less emphasis now being placed upon the subject — " Disciplinary" influence particularly strong — Other reasons than "disciplinary" must control — Increasing importance of modern language — German predominates — Values largely linguistic — Chief aim of instruction to give reading knowledge — Practical considerations involved — Relations which foreign language bears to our language — Greek has never had an important place — " Disciplinary " and " cultural" values of Latin — Limitations upon the study of Latin in the high school — Contribution made by Latin to our language — A question of economy in learning — Limitations upon any foreign language — Value of foreign language after leaving school — The use of translations.

xvi CONTENTS

Mathematics. — Mathematics an educational inheritance — "Disciplinary" values — Content values — The place of arithmetic — Unsatisfactory status of algebra — Geometry deserves relatively larger place — Mathematics to receive less attention.

Chapter XV — Household Arts, Manual Arts, Commercial Subjects, and Agriculture 173

Household Art. — Instruction has been too narrow — Favorable conditions necessary to success — Aim of instruction to develop proper attitude toward the home — Material to be selected from various fields.

The Manual Arts. — Emphasis on the manual side — Movement originated in private schools — Rapid development accounts in part for failure — Opposition to the work — Later emphasis upon educative values — The larger values — Two chief aims should control — Correlation with other work of the school needed.

Commercial Subjects. — Commercial subjects regarded with disfavor — Instruction in private schools — Instruction limited in the high school — Aims in bookkeeping have not secured results — Lack of proper aims in general — Two aims should govern in the work — Selection and organization of material — The work in commercial high schools.

Agriculture. — Furnishes useful point of view for selection of material from various fields — Educative values — Social demands — Social significance of agriculture — Dangers to the success of the movement — Conditions of experimental stage prevail — Emphasis on the practical.

Chapter XVI — Music and Art; Moral and Ethical Instruction i<

Music and Art. — Sources of material to develop aesthetic appreciation — Two reasons for failure to give music its proper place — Two aims in instruction — Instrumental music in the home — Vocal music in the school — Means of instruction in Art — Household art center for organization of material.

CONTENTS xvii

Moral and Ethical Instruction. — Aim of education ethical and moral — Demand for instruction — Not the name but the fact important — Sources of material — Social organization of the school an agency.

Chapter XVII — Physical Training and Athletics 196

The term physical training — Unfortunate beginnings; lack of control — Results on school work — The evils rather than the real problem have received attention — Steps in the solution — Three-fold aim — Needs and capacities of learners must be ascertained — Sources of material of instruction — Importance of physical exercises — The place and function of athletics — Correlation of instruction and

Chapter XVIII — Organization of the Curriculum 202

Present division between grades and high school unsatisfactory — No such thing as ideal curriculum — Problem of selecting subjects and subject-matter — Many schools attempt too much — Limitation as to time — Inadequate equipment — Limitation as to teachers — Problem in small schools different from that in large schools — Interests of majority of pupils must govern — College entrance requirements not determining influence — Nor narrow community interests — Proper points of emphasis — Work of many schools not standardized — Courses of smaller schools should not be mere segments of courses of larger schools — Problem in larger schools one of organization — Parallel courses — Criticism of this plan — Required subjects and electives — Required subjects should possess superior educational value — The group system — Criteria for determining relative value of subjects — Most insistent needs of learner must govern — Required subjects determined by these needs — Conditions hindering the working of elective system — Individual differences and social demands require electives — Conditions under which choices should be made.

xviii CONTENTS

B. The Social Organization

Chapter XIX — The Social Organization and the Curriculum 219

The social character of the school — The kind of social structure important — The school both a social and a socializing institution — Proper social setting necessary — Problem of organization a three-fold one — Relation of social organization to the curriculum — Class-room group the primary group of the school — Importance of this fact — The nature of the group — Functioning of a group aim — Standards of a group — Leadership in the group — Interests and capacities of members of the group — Subject-matter in relation to group interests — Daily adjustments in the work — Preparation of the lesson on the part of the teacher — Conducting the recitation — Method must take group situations into account — A test of method — Testing results — Individual and class instruction — Provision for individual interests and capacities — Relation of other groups to the class-room group — Need of proper social environment — An illustration — Principle does not apply in the same degree to all subjects — Segregation of pupils in some lines of work — Curriculum not only factor contributing to social character of the school.

Chapter XX — The Social Organization and Training for Social Efficiency 236

Social needs of young people — Function of social organization — Necessity of providing for leisure occupation — Greek letter societies — Reasons for their persistence — Problem must be dealt with constructively — Positive aspects of the problem — The work in social centers — A proper high school function — Relation of the teacher to the problem — Need of an educational policy — School should exercise more control over social activities — Value of concrete social relationships — Importance of standardizing social organizations — Standardization as to membership — Class-room work basis for standardization — Standardization of activities — Importance of the functioning of a proper social motive — Mere machinery does not constitute social organi-

CONTENTS xix

zation — Class-room work basis for standardizing activities

— Music as illustration — English and other subjects — The vocational subjects — Utilizing class organizations — Problem of direction and control — High school dramatics

— Athletic activities — A means of standardizing these activities — Student leadership as a means of control — Functions performed by student leadership — Moral and ethical values.

Chapter XXI — The Social Organization and School Government 255

School government not an isolated problem — A real problem none the less — Necessity for proper attitude toward the problem — Problem arises out of relationships within the school — Problem a specialized one in the high school — Control necessary in order that work may be carried on — Not a police but an educational problem — Mere control not the only function of school government — Adolescent characteristics in relation to school government — Moral and ethical aims — Policy of government must be suitable — Military or autocratic form — Pupil government — Meaning of self-government in the school — Policy of government not its form the essential thing — Policy should enlist sympathy and cooperation — Expression of group consciousness

— Permanent interests of pupils attach not to form of government but to activities — An illustration — Meaning of the illustration — The spirit of government controls — Expression of school spirit through social organizations — Attitude of pupils toward teacher-made rules — The problem of dealing with offenders — Classes of offenders — Psychological character of the problem — The responsibility must be placed on the offender — Practical workings of the policy.

Chapter XXII — Material Equipment 273

Inadequate equipment limits work of the school — True as regards text-books as well — New educational ideals must find expression in equipment — Buildings not large enough — Not properly planned — Much work being carried on under unfavorable conditions — Need of gymnasium faculties — The school building in relation to its use as xx CONTENTS

a social center — Inadequate grounds — An illustration — Advantages of adequate grounds — Larger use of school premises — The insistent need of equipment — Two general classes considered — Need of supplementary material — Two general classes of this material — Importance of selection of material — The high school library as a community library — Library equipment — Influence of the functional viewpoint.