Teaching children to read

Foreword

The author feels impelled to set forth the purpose and the scope of this volume, lest the student of education in search of new theories and experimentations in the physiology and the psychology of reading, be led astray. This book is given solely to the task of aiding teachers, who are seeking a method that has stood the pragmatic test, and that may, therefore, help them in their day's work. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the large number of teachers from whose methods of instruction, he has gleaned much that is practical in this volume.

Table Of Contents

CHAPTER

I. The Meaning and the Problems of the Teaching of Reading ....

II. Physiology and Hygiene of Reading .

Chapter I The Meaning And The Problems Of The Teaching Of Reading

Reading: Essentially a Problem of Thought Acquisition.

— The word "Reading" is traced to the Anglo-Saxon "raedon," which means "to advise." "Raedon" referred to the process of searching in books (of bark) for counsel. The Latin "lego" means "to gather," hence the derived meaning "to gather ideas from written sources." These etymological definitions, crude and far from the vital problems that must be solved in teaching children to read, nevertheless reflect the essence of the function of reading, viz., "to impart ideas, thoughts, inspirations." To the ancients, reading was a "mysterie," a magic art, understood by the shamans and the medicine men. Although the ability to read is today part of every citizen's educational right, we must, however, realize that it is none the less a "mysterie," when we consider what a complex psychophysiological process it is. How can a collection of symbols, static and formal themselves, arouse dynamic thought and living inspiration in the mind of the child?

The Elements of Reading.— i. To Extract Thought. —

As far as the classroom is concerned, reading must discharge certain definite functions. We must consider these before we discuss methodology in reading, for they indicate the goal of all method. Classroom reading must seek to develop first, in each child, the ability to extract thought from the printed page. Since this is essentially the object of reading in after life, it must become the governing aim of the teacher's endeavors. All other aims, such as pronunciation, expression, language, diction, must be subordinated to reading for thought.

2. Proper Vocalisation. — The second function of classroom reading is to develop the ability to properly vocalize, in the words of the author, the thought that was gained; in other words, the ability to read with accurate enunciation, clear articulation, and convincing expression. Here is posited a secondary aim of reading, which, however necessary in the classroom, forms no part of the reading of after life. The teacher finds this added function of reading exceedingly vital. Unless the child has proper vocalization how can she test his ability to recognize symbols, to speak articulately, to utter thought expressively ? Through the oral rendition the teacher even learns whether the child has the author's thought and responds to the emotional appeal. But, in after life, the sole function of reading is the acquisition of thought, while proper oral reading is regarded as a delightful accomplishment. In the final analysis, reading is a means of gaining thought, while oral reading is a means of expressing thought.

MEANING AND PROBLEMS

3, Literary Appreciation. — But a course of study in reading, the aims of which do not transcend thought acquisition and thought expression, fails in its most vital function. It must strive to develop, in addition, an appreciation of the best in literature. Reading that does not accomplish this end is sterile in those endeavors in which it ought to be most productive. We have left behind the formal conception of education which holds" that the school must give only the symbols of knowledge. With such an aim in elementary education reading is complete that teaches how to gain thought and vocalize it correctly. But the scope of education, even of elementary grade, must be more liberal. It must be cultural and inspirational. No school subject is so well adapted to develop this spirit as reading. It introduces the child to the best thoughts and ideals in the life of the race. Its subject-matter, literature, should stimulate the finer emotions, train the imagination, and develop the aesthetic sense. A school course in reading which discharges these functions has fulfiled its raison d'etre, for it has given the child the most effective instrument for self-culture and character development. This literary ideal should determine the choice of subject-matter from the very first grade. The school primer, whose inspirational appeal is summed up in "See the black cat!", "What ails the lock?", must rapidly become a relic of past pedagogical practice.

Charles William Eliot, of Harvard University, voices the ultimate end of reading in the school when he tells us, "From the total training during childhood, there should result in the child a taste for interesting and improving reading, which should direct and inspire its subsequent intellectual life. That schooling which results in this taste for good reading, however unsystematic and eccentric that schooling may have been, has achieved a main end of elementary education; and' that schooling which has not succeeded in implanting this permanent taste has failed. Guided and animated by this impulse to acquire knowledge and exercise his imagination through reading, the individual will continue to exercise himself all thtough life." G. Stanley Hall reen forces this statement with, "The prime object of the reading series should not be the cultivation of the art of reading, nor training to good style, nor grammatical or linguistic drill, important as these are, but the development of a living appreciation of good literature and the habit of reading it, rather than bad literature, for with this end all others are secured."

The Problems in Teaching Children to Read With

this view of the function of reading, what are the problems that confront us , in teaching this art of thought acquisition? To begin with, we must look upon reading as a physiological process, for we must know how these symbols give rise to images on the retina, how the eye moves over this series of symbols, the strain that is experienced, the causes of fatigue and the conditions governing accurate and rapid visual grasp. Reading must be looked upon, secondly, as a

MEANING AND PROBLEMS

psychological process, for the vital questions here are : ''How are these visual symbols interpreted into thought?" "How can speed and accuracy of this interpretation be promoted?" And, finally, we must regard reading from its pedagogical aspect, for the teaching problerlis are many. Reading is an artificial process with artificial symbols. How shall it be made natural to the child? What means of motivation shall we use? Of the imposing array of methods in reading which shall we select, and what shall be the principle of choice? Should ninety-five per cent, of classroom reading be oral, if ninety-five per cent, of the reading of later life is silent? Will this training' in oral reading make us proficient in silent reading? Should we train pupils to read slowly and orally in the classroom, in spite of the fact that the reading of mature life is visual and rapid? Does the slow oral reading of the classroom prepare for the rapid visual reading of later days? Is that recitation in reading efficient which requires that all children rivet their eyes on a single paragraph as some unfortunate victim labors through it? Each error makes the pupil more self-conscious and less able to perform the task. What do the other children learn ? How much reading does a child learn by listening to others read, even though they be good readers? These are a few of a host of problems that arise in the teaching of the subject. Their answers are vital and make up the pedagogy of reading. The reader's attention is therefore invited to three successive phases of the subject, which are treated in the chapters entitled, "The Physiology and Hygiene of Reading," "The Psychology of Reading," and "The Pedagogy of Reading."

Arnold, Sarah L. Learning to Read. Silver, Burdett & Co.

Carpenter, Baker and Scott. The Teaching of English, 66-75. Longmans, Green & Co.

Colby, J. R. Literature and Life in the School. Houghton Mifflin Co.

Goldwasser, L Edwin. Method and Methods in the Teaching of English, chap. L D. C. Heath & Co.

HuEY, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, chap. L The Macmillan Co.

Laing, Mary E. Reading ; A Manual for Teachers, chap. XXL D. C. Heath & Co.

McClintock, p. L. Literature in the Elementary School. University of Chicago Press.

*The bibliographies at the end of each chapter are not exhaustive. The aim is, rather, to suggest such reading as will amplify and elaborate the various phases of the subject treated in each chapter. Where the publisher is not mentioned, the reader will find the book or the reference listed at the end of a previous chapter.

Chapter II

Processes in Oral Reading. — An analysis of the processes in oral reading will readily show the teacher that they can be summed up under four heads. It is obvious that the first must be visual images of the words in the text. Just as soon as these are formed they call up automatically the second, auditory images of these same words. The mind hears the sounds of the words. These auditory images, in their turn, prompt the third, vocal motor images. The organs used in sound production seem to be set in motion by an imperative command and the sounds are produced. But words have meaning hence we find, in the fourth place, ideas and imagery arising from a central thought process. In the discussion of the physiology of reading we must begin with the first of these problems, viz., the formation of visual images. The others will be treated in the following chapter, "The Psychology of Reading."

Eye Movement in Reading. — We must first note carefully that the eye, contrary to the layman's impression, does not move across the line at a uniform rate, but rather in jerks or short sweeps, pausing at regular intervals at points on the line. The movement of the eye in reading may be graphically represented thus :

■ u u 2

Chart A. — Diagrammatic representation of eye-sweeps (i) and pauses (2) of four people reading a line of about three inches.

It is also important to note when the actual reading takes place, whether during the movement or during the pause. Through careful experimentation we find that reading takes place during the pauses, not during the sweeps or glances.

— M-o^^-e-m-elfl-U — o-i t-4 i c [ c yc i-n I p e a d | i[n g-

-Mjo V e m e- n t o-4 — h|-^i-« c y | c — t- n [ r| a a d t ng -

2 22 22

1 1

— M-oVpHi

Chart B. — Actual eye-sweeps (i) and pauses (2) of same four people reading same line.

Practical Importance of Eye Movement in Reading.

, — This physiological fact is important, because it helps us to realize what a fatiguing process reading really is for the child. The average person reads an ordinary page in two or three minutes. To do this about 150 of these eye movements are necessary. Let us try to move a finger or a hand 150 times in so short a given time and then note carefully the fatigue that is experienced. This gives us an idea of the severe strain to which the eye is subjected continuously. It shows us that the eye is an organ designed primarily for the sight that must be achieved in rudimentary society, yet doing twentieth century work. As the book is brought nearer the eye the number of sweeps over each line decreases, and more is caught at a glance, but as the page recedes from the eye the number of sweeps increases. ' The page, kept at a proper distance from the eye, therefore makes a greater drain upon the energy of the eye, and the child, instinctively seeking relief, brings the page nearer and nearer, until myopia, "shortsightedness," sets in. The teacher must realize how much care must constantly be exercised if children are to be kept free from eye ailments that follow in the wake of reading and study.

Regularity of Eye Movement Determines Ease in Reading. — A second important matter in this connection is the fact that ease in reading is produced by motor habits of breaking the lines into a given number of regular pauses and moves, each line showing the same number of stops and sweeps. Lines on a page should therefore be uniform in length and rather short. But a cursory examination of the average popular primer shows that this rule is honored more in the breach than in the observance. Irregular and broken lines seem to be the general law on pages enlivened by pictures. What is the invariable result? The eye is fatigued by the necessity of readjusting itself to a new set of moves and pauses with each varying set of lines. The sooner one acquires a rhythmical movement the surer is he to read with ease, speed, and minimum fatigue. Hence, the ideal page has lines of uniform length — one and one-third times that of the average newspaper line, or 75 to 80 mm.

Limited Length of Eye Sweeps. — Since this rhythm of movement and periodical pauses causes such eye fatigue, we naturally ask, "Why not increase the sweep until it includes the whole line?" This^is impossible, for the field of vision is naturally very limited. For those who are not aware of how limited it is, a surprise is in store. Let them select any letter or small word on the page and fix the eye upon it, then try to name the surrounding letters or words. In nonsense syllables four letters are usually caught in one sweep, while seven is an exceptional number. When the letters form words sixteen to twenty can be caught at once. In reading ordinary prose four to six words are included in one sweep. The obvious generalization is therefore : the greater the rational association the more we seem to acquire in a limited time, and the fewer are the eye sweeps per line. It is therefore necessary to differentiate between what the eye actually sees and what the mind contributes in all reading. This difference will receive more careful consideration in the next chapter, "The Psychology of Reading."

Importance of the Problem of Optic Fatigue. — The teacher must be familiar with these physiological phenomena of eye movement in reading, because any practice which operates counter to the natural movements of the eye causes reading fatigue, and brings with it dangers that are severe and far-reaching. It is a common experience of the nerve specialist to find that optic fatigue most surely becomes general nerve fatigue. Optic fatigue brings in its wake sick headache, dizziness, digestive disturbances, general debility, and irritability. Serious nervous disorders may have their origin in optic fatigue. "Eye strain is in closest relation to nerve strain ... we seldom or never have the former without the latter." When one is physically tired he cannot read. He can listen to music, follow a discussion, and even argue a point, but he turns instinctively from a book. Long reading makes one physically tired, because of the constant nervous drain that is involved in this complex of physiological activities and adjustments.

Causes of Eye Strain and Optic Fatigue What is

there about the process of reading which brings about this severe nervous drain and its resulting optic fatigue? The conditions are many — so many that a child's inattention during a reading lesson whose context is not very interesting should not be regarded as

II an unpardonable offense. Chief among the factors which produce optic fatigue we may name the following:

1. In reading much nervous energy is necessary to adjust the eye for near accommodations. The natural tendency is for the eye to adjust itself to distant vision, and give itself over to the round of varied presentations within its range.

2. In order to get each succeeding phrase of any sentence into the brightest part of the field of vision, the eye moves over the lines by means of the succession of sweeps and pauses that were considered. This is the greatest single factor in nervous strain caused by reading.

3. During reading the eye muscles are not in motion nine-tenths of the time. But, while they are motionless, they are strained, trying to hold the eye in focus, so that each visual grasp of the line will fall on the most sensitive area of the retina. This strained rest is far more fatiguing than ordinary movement.

4. In the reading position the muscles of the neck are strained to hold the head in proper position. This adjustment, when continued for a protracted period, causes an obvious nervous strain. Brain energy is thus reduced and mental vitality is lowered.

5. The forward bend of the head produces a blood congestion which aggravates the symptoms just noted in preceding causes.

6. Prolonged reading periods in ill-lighted rooms, and in seats and at desks that are poorly adapted to the children, cause myopia, which is a constant drain upon neural energy. Myopia is not only an eye deformity but it is also a progressive disease.

In the light of the seriousness of eye strain and the prevalence of its causes, we see the need of books that meet hygienic requirements in print and in arrangement. To continue putting the prevailing books into the hands of children is to court optic fatigue, general nervousness, and myopia. We must, therefore, decide on the hygienic requirements of a book before we consider its pedagogical merits.

Hygienic Requirements of Properly Printed Books

I. The Size of the Type is the Most Important Single Factor. — There is an unmistakable and an unvarying law for size of type, viz., as the type decreases in size optic fatigue increases. The effects of insufficient illumination are less marked than those of undersized type. Legibility of type is determined by a number of considerations which must be observed by the makers of textbooks: (a) the thickness of the vertical stroke, {b) proper spacing between vertical strokes, (c) proper spacing between the lines, {d) clearness of the tops of letters, {e) proper size. The standard for the size of type which has met the approval of most specialists in the hygiene of reading is clearly formulated by Shaw, in his "School Hygiene" (p. 178). Its requirements and illustrations follow :

"For the first year the size of the type should be at least 2.6 mm., and the width of leading 4.5 mm., as shown in this example:

Little drop of dew, Like a gem you are;

I believe that you

Must have been a star.

"For the second and the third year, the letters should not be smaller than 2 mm., with a leading of 4 mm. Some of the more carefully made books for the second and the third years are printed in letters of this size, as shown in the following example :

Children of eight and nine should not read type smaller than this.

"For the fourth year, the letters should be at least 1.8 mm., with leading of 3.6 mm., as follows:

Children in the fourth school year should read type of this size and appearance.

"For some grades succeeding this, the type should be kept well above the minimal requirements for adult readers."

2. The Length of the Line is the Factor Next in Importance. — Short and uniform lines, measuring between seventy-five and ninety millimeters, are demanded by most expert investigators. Ninety millimeters is most favored, A full line in this book measures about 90 millimeters. The short line saves a number of eye movements, for the eye begins each line at a point indented, and it stops at a point some distance from the end of the line. Experiments show that we have a greater visual grasp when the lines are short than when they are long. Another cardinal requirement here is absolute uniformity in the length of the lines.

3. Books should be small enough to be held in the hand. — Books that are large and heavy are usually placed on the desk. The angle of vision is now changed, and the letters, becoming foreshortened, are thus practically reduced in size.

4. The Character of the Paper is Also Very Important. — The most legible print is produced by making the strongest contrast between the color of the print and that of the paper. Since black on a white background forms, this contrast in color, only good white paper should be used in the manufacture of school books. Unusual care should be taken to keep out of the school, books printed on glossed paper. The cheap paper with a sheen, that makes up so many of our school textbooks, gives a play of light that is most aggravating to the eye. An equally important requirement insists that the paper have a minimum thickness of .075 mm., so that the print on one side will not show on the other.

Boards of Education to Standardize Books. — In the light of these hygienic demands, how many of the class textbooks are up to standard? An examination with the aid of a millimeter measure and a magnifying glass will show to principals and teachers an amazingly low percentage. But books properly printed need not cost appreciably more. Only when Boards of Education have adopted a standard will publishing concerns refrain from continuing the publication of books that rob eyesight and cause an inexcusable nervous drain. Indifference to matters so vital to health and efficiency is unpardonable.

Cohen, H. The Hygiene of the Eye. The Midland Educational Co. (Ltd.), Eng.

Dresslar, T. B. School Hygiene, chap. XV. The Macmillan Co.

HuEY, Edmund B. Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, chaps. II, HI, XX, XXI.

Shaw, Edward R. School Hygiene, chap. IX. The Macmillan Co.

Taylor. J. S. Principles and Methods of Teaching Reading, chaps. II, VIII. The Macmillan Co.

Chapter III

Inner Speech in Reading. — We come now to a more complex problem, the psychology of reading, which studies how the visual impression of the word stimulates the auditory image, thus bringing about meaning and interpretations. Because there is an inseparable association between a word and its sound there is always a problem of inner speech. Just as soon as a visual image of a word is recognized in consciousness an auditory image of it arises, and these two prompt an instantaneous verbal motor expression. Hence the conclusion of investigators is, "In visual reading the auditory and the motor centers work along" (Messmer). Purely visual reading is not normal. We have here, therefore, an explanation of the prevalent practice, in early reading, of lip movement. This method of reading is not acquired by the children; it is the result of the natural tendency to give expression to any idea in the mind. No sooner does the mind become conscious of the meaning of the symbol which it sees than the organs of speech give expression to it. Reading without lip reaction is an acquired art, a habit to be cultivated. But, even when there is no apparent lip movement, there is a muscular reaction going on in the throat, which can readily be detected by the trained observer and his instruments.

The preceding discussions concerned themselves with eye reading. In the present chapter we must turn our attention to a second form of reading — mental reading. These two forms of reading, eye reading and mind reading, must be differentiated very clearly. Because the child, who is learning to read, speaks and hears his native language, he has a feeling for its structure, form, and cadence. It follows, therefore, that most of the expression, the stops at sense pauses, the intonations, etc., in the child's Speech, are due to associations formed long ago. In reading "since he" the child naturally expects "he therefore"; likewise "not only" calls up "but also"; -as"— "as"; "neither— nor" ; "if— then," etc. The mind, therefore, makes a liberal contribution to what the eye brings ; a reader perceives mentally more than the eye brings in any one sweep. Since this mental expectancy makes the mind a more rapid reader than the eye, it follows that one often has the meaning of a sentence before the eye has formed a retinal image of the end of it.

Relation of "Rate in Reading" to Thought Acquisition in Reading. — The practical teacher may now ask, "Why stop at the problems of inner speech in reading, and mental vs. visual reading?" These two questions are important, because they determine a most vital factor in reading as a process of thought-getting, viz.,

i8

"Rate in Reading." From actual observation we find that there are great discrepancies in the rate of reading among individuals ; the variations show a usual ratio of I 13, or even i -.4. In other words, it is usual to find among people of the same class, experience, and education individuals who read three or four times faster than others. Generally speaking, the rate in reading is determined hy the rhythmical sweeps of the eye over a line; hut the rate of rhythmic sweeps is, in its turn, modified by inner speech and mental grasp. The impatient teacher, confronted by actual problems in the teaching of reading, may insist: "What if there is such discrepancy — aside from the time consumed, what is its importance? After all, is it not more important to consider what we read and what we get out of it, than how much or how fast we read?"

The answer, surprisingly, is in the negative. Rapid readers are the more intelligent readers; they gain more intensive and more vivid impressions than slow readers. Those who indulge in lip movement, in auditory aids and the like are not only less extensive but also less intensive readers. Evidence to prove this contention is so great that we need argue the matter no further but examine the conclusions of various impartial observers :

"Experiments show that half-second exposure of a word is more advantageous than a whole second, and one second more advantageous than two. . . . When printed matter was exposed for a short time, about one one-hundredth of a second, more could be read or the same amount could be read more easily, than when the exposure was longer." ^

"Rapid readers remember more of the original thought, and the character of their reproductions is much higher, both generally and with reference to expression and logical content." -

"It might be supposed that greater rapidity was gained at the sacrifice of exactness or of intelligence. This supposition is negatived by an examination of the amount and quantity of the material reproduced. A comparison between the ten most rapid readers and the ten slowest shows that the rapid readers remember more of the original thoughts, and that the character of their reproduction is much higher, both generally and with reference to expression and logical content. In the auditory tests the ratio of slow to rapid readers is 14.8 per cent, to 20.7 per cent, in the number of thoughts. In quality the percentages are 47.8 for slow readers, 60.3 for fast. The same comparison in the

*HuEy. "Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading." * QuANTZ. Psychological Review, ii, 28, 38. The degree in which the rapid readers excel the slow in eyemindedness can perhaps best be understood by a comparison of extreme classes. The "very slow readers" (3.9 words per second) reproduce 89.1 per cent, as much of the visual selection as the auditory, while the very "rapid readers" (7.3 words per second) are able to recall 123.2 of visual for every 100 of auditory ; that is, the ratio of reading rates between the slowest and the fastest readers is 3.9 to 7.3 (i :i.87), while the ratio of visual tendency as compared with the auditory is 89.1 to 123.2 (1:1.38). On the principle of correlations this result shows eyemindedness to be a rather strong factor in the determination of reading rates.

visual tests results as follows : Percentage of thoughts reproduced by slow readers, 14.9; by rapid, 24.4. Quality : Slow, 48 per cent. ; rapid, 73.3 per cent. The difference in favor of the 'rapids' is consequently much greater than in auditory tests, indicating again that rapid readers are, as a rule, of the visual type. . . . "To emphasize this relation a comparison of extremes might be shown as follows : The ten slowest readers show almost double the amount of lip movement that the ten most rapid do. Or, again, determining the rate by means of lip movement, we have : the ten most decided lip movers read 4.1 words per second; that is, they are between the classes 'slow' and 'very slow' and nearer to the latter ; while the ten who show least movement of lips read 5.6 words per second, very close to an average rapid." ^ ,: ;j,"Xi. ^

Why the Slow Reader Is the less Thoughtfut' One. — "Regarding language as an apparatus of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say that, as in a mechanical apparatus, the more simple and the better arranged are the parts, the greater will be the effect produced. In either case, whatever force is absorbed by the machine is deducted from the result. A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power available. To recognize and interpret the symbols presented to him requires part of this power; to arrange and combine the images suggested requires another part ; and only that part that remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence ^QuANTz. Ibid.