Forage plants and their culture

Front matter

Ill

ITT

I i )

Preface

The exceedingly diversified climatic conditions in North America have led to the cultivation of an unusually large number of plant species for forage production. Some of these are successful or important over but a comparatively small area, and not one is capable of profitable cultivation over the whole region. The climatic conditions of some parts of North America, especially the dry regions and the southernmost states, are not closely duplicated in any part of Europe. This fact has necessitated the introduction of numerous grasses and legumes from other regions to secure forage plants capable of profitable cultivation. The success of these endeavors has resulted in the utilization of many forage crops practically unknown in Europe, such as numerous varieties of sorghum, cowpeas, soybeans, Japan clover, Florida beggarweed, velvet bean, Bermuda-grass, Rhodesgrass, and many others. In some sections, there is still need of better adapted or more productive forage crops. Extensive experimental investigations have been conducted with only a few forage crops in America, so that there yet remains much to be learned concerning most of the others.

The aim of the author has been to present as concisely as practicable the present state of our knowledge with reference to each forage crop grown in America, and it is hoped that no important contributions to the subject have been omitted.

The illustrations are mostly those which have been used in various publications of the United States Department of vi PREFACE

Agriculture, the seed illustrations being reproductions of the unequalled drawings of Professor F. H. Hillman.

The bringing together of the scattered results of American research with some references to those of Europe will, it is hoped, reveal to students the phases of the subject which need further investigation.

In preparing this volume the author wishes to acknowledge the aid he has received from his colleagues, E,. A. Oakley, J. M. Westgate, H. N. Vinall, W. J. Morse, M. W. Evans, H. L. Westover, and Katherine S. Bort.

CHARLES V. PIPER.

Washington, D.C, January, 1914.

Contents

PAGE

Chapter I. — Introduction ....... 1

Definitions. — Knowledge of Forage Crops Compared with Other Crops. — Forage Crops and CiviUzation. — Forage Crops in Europe and America. — Perennial Hay Plants in Europe and America. — Botany of Forage Crops. — Aggressiveness Necessary in Perennial Forage Crops. — Characteristics of Grasses, — Legumes. — Root Nodules. — The Nodule Organism. — Forms of Root Nodules. — Natural Inoculation. — Artificial Inoculation. — Dependence of Legumes on Root Nodules.

Chapter II. — Preservation of Forage. .... 21

Preservation of Forage. — Time of Cutting. — Haymaking in Dry Weather. — Curing of Hay. — Haymaking under Humid Conditions. — Special Devices to Facilitate Hay Curing. — Completion of Curing. — Shrinkage of Stored Hay. — Loss of Hay or Fodder in the Field. — Relation of Green Weight to Dry Weight. — Loss of Substance from Growing Plants. — Hay Stacks. — Spontaneous Combustion. — Statistics of Hay Yields. — Brown Hay. — Silage. — The Nature of Silage Fermentation. — Advantages of Silage. — Crops Adapted to Ensiling. — Soiling or Soilage. — Soiling Systems.

Chapter III. — Choice of Forage Crops . . . .47

What Determines the Choice of a Forage Crop. — Special Purposes for which Forage Crops are Grown. — Adaptation to Conditions. — Yield. — Yields under Irrigation. — Cost of Seeding. — Time of Harvesting. — Ease of Harvesting and Curing. — Demands or Prejudices of the User, — Feeding Values. — I'eeding Experiments. — Chemical Analyses. — Chemical Composition as Affected by Soil Fertility and by Fertilizers. — Chemical Composition as Affected by Stage of Maturity. — Variation in Chemical Composition from Unascertained Causes. — Digestible Nutrients. — Net Energy Values. — Starch Values. — Comparison of Feeding Values.

vii viii CONTENTS

PA6B

Chapter IV. — Seeds and Seeding ...... 67

Quality. — Genuineness. — Purity. — Viability. — Actual Value of Seed. — Superiority of Local Seed. — Standards of Purity and Germination. — Adulteration and Misbranding. — Color and Plumpness of Seeds. — Age of Seeds. — Source of Seeds. — Seed Inspection. — Sampling. — Guaranteed Seeds.

— Fungous Diseases. — Hard Seeds. — Most Dangerous Weed Seeds. — Weight of Seeds. — Number of Seeds in One Pound. — Seed Production of Forage Crops, United States, 1909. — Seeding in Practice. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Depth of Planting. — Experimental Results. — Nurse Crops.

Chapter V. — Meadows and Pastures ..... 92 Meadow Mixtures. — Composition of Meadow Mixtures

— Treatment of Hay Meadows. — Scarifying Old Meadows.

— Reseeding Old Meadows. — Fertilizers for Hay Crops. — Top-dressing for Aftermath or Rowen. — Acreage of Improved Pasture in the United States. — Area of Wild Pasture in the United States. — Most Important Tame Pasture Plants. — Palatability of Pasture Grasses. — Pasture Yield as Determined by Number of Cuttings. — Pasture Mixtures.

— Treatment of Permanent Pastures. — Pasturing Meadows.

— Carrying Capacity. — Temporary Pastures. — Temporary Pasture Crop Systems for Hogs. — Bloating or Hoven.

Chapter VI. — The Statistics of Forage Crops . . . 113

Classification of Crops in Statistical Returns. — Forage Crops in General, United States, 1909. — Hay and Forage by Classes, United States, 1909. — Forage Statistics for Canada.

Chapter VII. — Timothy 122

Botany. — Agricultural History. — Agricultural Importance. — Climatic Adaptations. — Soil Adaptation. — Advantages of Timothy. — Rotations. — Seed. — Preparation of Seed Bed. — Heavy Seeds or Light Seeds. — Rate of Seeding. — Depth of Seeding. — Methods of Seeding. — Seed Bed. —Fertilizers for Timothy. — Lime. — Irrigation.

— Time to Cut for Hay. — Yields. — Pasture. — Pollination.

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

— Seed Production. — Life History. — Life Period. — Depth of Root System. — Proportion of Roots to Tops. — Regional Strains. — Feeding Value. — Injurious Insects. — Diseases. — Variability. — Disease Resistance. — Breeding. — Methods of Breeding. — Desirable Types of Improved Timothies. — Comparison of Vegetative and Seed Progeny. — Field Trials with Improved Strains.

Chapter VIII. — Blue-grasses, Meadow-grasses and Redtop ........ 154

Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) : Botany ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Characteristics ; Culture ; Fertilizers ; Yields of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Hybrids. — Canada Blue-grass {Poa compressa) : Botany ; Seed ; Culture ; Adaptations; Importance. — Texas Blue-grass (Poa arachnifera). — Fowl Meadow-grass {Poa triflora). — Rough-stalked Meadow-grass {Poa trivialis). — Wood Meadow-grass {Poa nemoralis) . — Redtop : Names; Botany; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics ; Importance ; Variability ; Regional Strains ; Culture ; Yield of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed.

Chapter IX. — Orchard-grass, Tall Oat-grass and Brome

Orchard-grass : Description ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Preferences ; Adaptation to Shade ; Variability; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Importance ; Seeding of Orchard-grass ; Life History ; Harvesting for Hay ; Yields of Hay ; Harvesting Orchard-grass for Seed ; Weeds ; Seed ; Sources of Seed ; Utilization of Stubble and Aftermath ; Mixtures ; Pasturage Value ; Feed Value ; Value as a Soil Binder ; Improvement by Selection ; Pests. — Tall Oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius) : Names ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Characteristics ; Seeding; Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed; Mixtures. — Brome-grass : Names and Description; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Depth of Roots ; Method of Seeding ; Rate of Seeding Brome-grass ; Time to Cut for Hay ; Hay ; Fertilizers ; Treatment of Meadows ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Pasture Value ; Mixtures ; Variability.

X CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter X. — Other Grasses of Secondary Importance . 204

Meadow Fescue (Festuca elatior) : Botany and History ; Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Seeding ; Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Pasture Value ; Pests ; Hybrids. — Tall Fescue. — Reed Fescue (Festuca arundinacea) . — Perennial or English Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) : Name; Agricultural History ; Botany ; Characteristics ; Adaptation ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Hay Yields ; Seed Production; Seed. — Italian Rye-grass : Characteristics ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Culture ; Irrigation ; Hay Yields ; Seed Production ; Seed. — Slender Wheat-grass {Agropyron tenerum). — Western Wheat-grass {Agropyron occidentale) .

Chapter XI, — Perennial Grasses of Minor Importance . 223

Sheep's Fescue and Closely Related Species : Importance and Culture; Seed. — Red Fescue (Festuca rubra). — Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) : Characteristics ; Adaptations; Culture; Seed. — Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthiim odoratum) : Botany ; Culture. — Reed Canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea) : Botany and Agricultural History; Characteristics; Culture. — Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus). — Erect Brome (Bromus erectus). — Yellow Oat-grass (Trisetumjlavescens). — • Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus) .

Chapter XII. — Southern Grasses 237

Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : Botany ; Characteristics ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Variability ; Importance ; Culture ; Yields of Hay ; Rootstocks ; Pasture Value; Feeding Value; Seed Production. — Johnson-grass (Andropogon halepensis) : Botany; Agricultural History; Adaptation and Utilization ; Poisonous Qualities ; Seed. — Japanese Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) : History and Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Planting ; Culture ; Utilization ; Yields ; Seed Cane. — Carpet-grass (Axonopus compressus). — Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum). — Para-grass (Panicum harhinode). — Guinea-grass (Panicum maximum). — Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides). — Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis). — Natal-grass (Tricholcena rosea).

CONTENTS xi

PAGE

Chapter XIII. — Sorghums 260

Sorghum (Anclropogon sorghum) : Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Root System ; Agricultural Groups ; Importance; Culture; Time of Sowing; Seeding in Rows; Seeding Broadcast ; Number of Cuttings ; Yields of Forage ; Seed ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seed-production ; Utilization ; Soilage ; Fodder ; Hay ; Silage ; Sorghum and Legume Mixtures ; Pasture Value ; Poisoning ; Diseases ; Insect Pests; Sorghum Improvement. — Sudan-grass (A7idropogon sorghum var.) : Description; Adaptations; Culture ; Utilization ; Hay ; Hay Mixtures ; Chemical Analysis ; Seed-production.

Chapter XIV. — Millets and Other Annual Grasses . 285

The Principal Millets. — Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) : Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding; Hay; Feeding Value; Silage from Foxtail Millet ; Injurious Effects ; Seed-production ; Seed ; Diseases and Insects. — Japanese Barnyard Millet {Echinochloa frumentacea) . — Broom-corn Millet {Panicum miliaceum). — Comparative Hay Yields in Pounds to the Acre of Different Millets at Several Experiment Stations. — Shama Millet {Echinochloa colona or Panicum colonum). — Ragi, Finger-millet or Coracan (Eleusine coracana).

— Texas Millet (Panicum texanum). — Cereals for Hay. — Chess or Cheat (Bromus secalinus). — Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis). — Penicillaria {Pennisetum glaucum). — Teosinte {Euchloena mexicana).

Chapter XV. — Alfalfa ........ 305

Agricultural History. — Origin of the Common Names. — Heat Relations. — Cold Relations. — Humidity Relations. — Soil Relations. — Distribution of the Alfalfa Crop. — Botanical Varieties of Alfalfa. — Cultivated Varieties of Alfalfa. — Importance of the Varieties. — Influence of Source of Seed.

— Comparison of Regional Strains. — Important Characteristics of Alfalfa. — Life Period. — Roots. — Relations to Soil Moi.sture. — Seedlings. — Rootstocks. — Shoots. — Relative Proportion of Leaves, Stems and Roots. — Seed-bed. — Inoculation. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method of Seeding. — Nurse-crops. — Clipping. — Winter-killing. — xii CONTENTS

PAGE

Time to Cut for Hay. — Number of Cuttings. — Quality of Different Cuttings. — Irrigation. — Time to Apply Irrigating Water. — Winter Irrigation. — Kelation of Yield to Water Supply. — Care of an Alfalfa Field. — Alfalfa in Cultivated Rows. — Alfalfa in Mixtures. — Alfalfa in Rotations. — Pasturing Alfalfa. — Use as a Soiling Crop. — Alfalfa Silage. — Alfalfa Meal. — Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seeds. — Viability of Seed. — Alfalfa Improvement. — Breeding Methods. — Weeds. — Dodder or Love-vine. — Diseases. — Insects.

Chapter XVI. — Red Clover 361

Botany of Red Clover. — Agricultural History. — Importance and Distribution. — Soil Relations. — Climatic Relations. — Effect of Shade. — Life Period. — Agricultural Varieties. — Comparison of Regional Strains. — Time of Seeding. — Rate of Seeding. — Seedlings. — Seeding with a Nurse-crop. — Seeding without a Nurse-crop. — Depth of Planting. — Winter-killing. — Treatment of Clover Fields. — Fertilizers. — Gypsum. — Lime. — Irrigation. — Red Clover in Mixtures. — Use in Rotations. — Effect of Clover in Rotations when Only the Stubble is Turned Under. — Volunteer Crops. — Stage to Cut. — Composition at Different Stages. — Number of Cuttings. — Yields of Hay. — Relation of Green Weight to Hay Weight. — Feeding Value. — Comparative Feeding Value of the First and Second Crops of Hay. — Soiling. — Pasturage. — Silage. — Number of Flowers and Seeds to the Head. — Pollination and Fecundation. — Seed-production. — Harvesting the Seed Crop.- — Yields of Seed. — Statistics of Seed Crop. — Value of the Straw. — Seed. — Color of Seeds. — Roots. — Shoots. — Proportion of Roots to Shoots. — Relative Proportions of Stems, Leaves and Flower Heads. — Diseases. — Clover Sickness. — Reduction of Acreage Probably Due Mainly to Clover Sickness. — Insects. — Improvement of Red Clover by Breeding. — Disease-resistant Strains.

Chapter XVII. — Other Clovers — Alsike, Hungarian, White and Sweet .... 405

Alsike Clover ( Trifolium h7jhridum) : Botany of Alsike ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics of Al-

CONTENTS xiii

PAGE sike Clover ; Regional Strains ; Importance ; Culture ; Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Value for Pasturage. — Hungarian Clover ( Trifolium pannonicum). — Wliite Clover ( Trifolium repens) : Botany ; Description ; Agricultural Histoiy ; Adaptations ; Importance of White Clover ; Seeding ; Yields ; Pollination ; Seed-production ; Seed. — Ladino White Clover. — Sweet Clover (3IeJiIotus alba) : Botany and Description; Adaptations ; Agricultural History ; Seeding ; Securing a Stand ; Relative Proportions of Tops and Roots of Sweet Clover ; Utilization ; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Yield ; Seed-production ; Seed ; Related Species.

Chapter XVIII. — Crimson Clover and Other Annuals . 426

Crimson Clover ( Trifolium incarnatum) : Botany ; Agricultural History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Variability and Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Time of Sowing ; Methods of Sowing ; Time to Cut for Hay ; Yields ; Other Uses of Crimson Clover; Seed-production; Seed. — Shaftal or Persian Clover (Trifolium suaveolens). — Berseem {Trifolium alexandrinum). — Yellow Trefoil {Medicago lupulina). — Bur Clovers {Medicago spp.). — Dakota Vetch {Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus).

Chapter XIX. — Peas and Pea-like Plants. . . . 441

Pea (Fisum sativum) : Botany and History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Development of the Plant ; Hay ; Peas and Oats ; Pasture Value ; Garden Pea Vines ; Irrigation ; Seed-production ; Seed. — Pea Weevil (Laria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum). — Chick-pea ( Cicer arietinum) . — Grass-pea, Vetchling or Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus).

Chapter XX. — Vetches and Vetch-like Plants . . 456

Kinds of Vetches. Common Vetch (Vicia sativa) : Description ; Botany and Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Time of Sowing ; Rate of Seeding ; Harvesting for Hay ; Pasturing Feeding Value ; Rotations ; Fertilizers ; Lime ; Silage Seed-production; Seed. — Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa) Description ; Botany ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Preferences ; Rate of Seeding • Time of Seeding ; Depth of Seeding ;

xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

Inoculation ; Uses of the Crop ; Pollination ; Harvesting for Hay ; Feeding Value ; Use in Rotations ; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Growing Seed ; Sources^ of Seed ; Seeds. — Narrow-leaved Vetch (Vicia angustifolia). — Purple Vetch {Vicia atropurpurea) . — Woolly-pod Vetch (Vicia dasycarpa). — Scarlet Vetch (Vicia fiilg ens) . — Ervil or Black Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia). — Narbonne Vetch (Vicia narhonnensis) . — Horse Bean ( Vicia faha). — Bird or Tufted Vetch (Vicia cracca). — Tangier Pea (Lathyrus tingitanus).

— Flat-podded Vetchling (Lathyrus cicera). — Ochrus (Lathymis ochrus). — Comparison of Vetch Species. — Fenugreek (Trigonella fmrnim-groicnm). — Lupines {Lupinus spp.). — Serradella (Ornithopus sativus). — Square-pod Pea (Lotus tetragonolohus).

Chapter XXI. — Cowpeas 491

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) : Botanical Origin; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Uses of the Crop ; Varietal Distinctions ; Life Period ; Pods and Seeds ; Correlations ; Important Varieties ; Rate and Method of Seeding ; Time of Seeding ; Inoculation ; Number of Cuttings ; Hay ; Hay Yields ; Feeding Value ; Cowpeas in Broadcast Mixtures ; Cowpea Mixtures not Broadcasted ; Growing Cowpeas for Seed; Pollination; Seed Yield; Proportion of Seed and Hulls ; Seeds ; Viability ; Root System ; Disease Resistance ; Insect Enemies.

Chapter XXII. — Soybeans 513

Agricultural History. — Botany. — Description. — Soil Adaptations. — Climatic Adaptations. — Importance. — Desirable Characters in Soybean Varieties. — Commercial Varieties. — Preparation of Soil and Cultivation. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method of Seeding. — Depth of Planting. — Inoculation. — Life Period. — Time to Cut for Hay. — Hay Yields. — Fertilizers. — Soybean Mixtures.

— Silage. — Rotations. — Feeding Value of Soybean Hay. — Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seed Yield. — Seeds. — Pests. — Breeding. — Soybeans and Cowpeas Compared.

Chapter XXIII. — Other Hot-season Annual Legumes . 639 Lespedeza or Japan Clover : Description ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Culture ; Pasturage Value ; Hay ;

CONTENTS XV

Seed-production. — Florida Velvet Bean (Stizolobium deeringianuvi) : Description and History ; Utilization ; Other Species of Stizolobium. — Peanut {Arachis hypogcea). — Florida Beggarweed {Desmodium torUiosum or Ileibomia tortuosa). — The Jack Bean ( Canavalia eiisiformis) . — Mung Bean (Phaseolus aureus). — Urd (Phaseolus mungo). — Moth Bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) . — Adzuki Bean {Phaseolus angularis). — Bonavist or Hyacinth Bean {Dolichos lablab). — Guar {Gyamopsis tetragonoloba) .

Chapter XXIV. — Miscellaneous Perennial Legumes . 559

Sainfoin ( Onobrychis vicicefoUa) : Description ; Agricultural History ; Culture ; Seed ; American Data. — Sulla or Spanish Sainfoin (Hedysarum coronariuiii) . — Kudzu {Pueraria thunbergiana). — Flat Pea (Lathyrus silvestris var. wagneri). — Kidney Vetch {Anthyllis vulneraria). — Goat's Rue (Galega officinalis). — Bird's-foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). — Astragalus falcatus. — Furze ( Ulex europceus).

Chapter XXV. — Miscellaneous Herbs Used as Forage . 571

Mexican Clover (Bichardsonia scabra). — Prickly Pear ( Opuntia spp.). — Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). — Spurrey (Spergula sativa). — Yarrow (Achillea millefoli^im) . — ^d,Qh?CimB(Polygon'umsarhalinense). — ^\\.rn&t (Sanguisorba minor). — Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata). — Prickly Comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum). — Australian Saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) .

Chapter XXVI. — Root Crops and Other Comparable Forages ........ 583

Root Crops: Importance of Root Crops; Kinds of Root Crops ; Comparison of Various Root Crops ; Roots Compared with Corn and Sorghum. — ^^.?c\)e (Brassica 7iapiis): Importance; Seeding; Place in Rotations; Sowing with Another Crop ; Utilization ; Carrying Capacity of Rape Pastures ; Yields; Insects. — Kale (Brassica oleracea) : Diseases; Yields of Kale, Cabbage and Other Brassicaceous Plants. — Jerusalem Artichoke (Heliaiithus tuberos7is). — Chufa (Cyperus esculentus). — Cassava (Manihot utilissima).

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Distribution of hay and forage in the United States . . 6

2. Distribution of cattle in the United States — 1 dot equals

1000 head. Compare distribution with that of forage

in Fig. 1 8

3. Ligule of a grass leaf 14

4. Spikelet of orchard-grass 14

5. A single floret of orchard-grass 14

6. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1) : a, Sand

bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass; f , dock ; g, black bindweed ; h, Russian thistle ; i, corn cockle ; j, white campion ; k, bladder campion ; 1, night-flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle ; n, pennycress : o, field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax ; q, small-fruited false flax ; r, ball mustard ; s, black mustard ; t, English charlock 77

7. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2) : a, Indian

mustard; b, hare's ear mustard; c, tumbling mustard ; d, wild carrot; e, field bindweed; f, flax dodder; g, clover dodder ; h, small-seeded alfalfa dodder ; i, fleld dodder; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder; k, corn gromwell ; 1, rat-tail plantain ; m, buckhorn ; n, ragweed ; 0, gumweed; p, wild sunflower; q, oxeye-daisy ; r, Canada thistle ; s, bull thistle ; t, wild chicory ... 79

8. Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops

1909-1910 » ^

9. Timothy (Phleum prateiise) : a, glumes ; b, floret with glumes removed

10. Timothy. Florets showing the different parts

11. Distribution of timothy 1909-1910. Figures equal acres

12. Kentucky hlu.e-gra.ss( Poapratensis) : a, spikelet ; b, lemma

showing attached tuft of hairs ....

xvii

123 123 124 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE

13. A spikelet and florets of Kentucky blue-grass : a, spikelet as

it appears at maturity ; b, the same, having the florets spread apart, showing jointed rachilla ; c, back view of a floret, showing the lemma (1) ; d, front view of the floret, showing the edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2), and the rachilla segment (3) ; e, the grain, or kernel . 166

14. Mixture of seeds of Kentucky blue-grass (a) and Canada

blue-grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds are broadest at the center, pointed, and have a distinct ridge on each side. Canada blue-grass seed are mostly broadest near one end, blunt, and smooth on the sides . . 162

15. Seeds of redtop representing the "fancy" grade of the

trade : a, different views of seeds having the white, papery, inner chaff ; b, two views of a grain, or kernel, with the inner chaff removed ; c, the same nearly natural size 174

16. Chaff of redtop seed : a. Whole spikelets, usually devoid of

seed in "chaffy" grades; b, separated scales of the same ; a and b represent the outer chaff of the seed. (Enlarged.) 175

17. Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata) : a, spikelet; b, floret;

c, stamens and pistil ; d, ligule ; e, section of node . 177

18. Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass

(b) , and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds are distinguished from the others by their slender, curved form. The meadow fescue and rye-grass seeds are distinguished by the difference in the section of the seed-cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (Enlarged. ) 185

19. Tall oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius) : a, spikelet ; b, the

two florets 189

20. Brome-grass (Bromits inermis) : a, spikelet; b, floret, dor-

sal view ; c, floret, vertical view ..... 196

21. Me&dow fescue {Festuca el atior): a., spikelet . . . 205

22. Italian rye-grass (Lolium multiflorum) : a, spikelet ; b, c,

lemma ; d, e, seed 214

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix

FIGITRE PAGE

23. Slender wheat-grass {Agropyron tenenim) : a, glumes;

b, spikelet with glumes removed 220

24. Sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina) : a, glumes ; b, spikelet with

glumes removed 224

25. Crested dogstail {Cynosurus cristatus) : a, b, fertile spike-

lets ; c, sterile spikelet 235

26. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) -. a, spikelet; b, floret . 238

27. Paspalum dilatatum : a, showing arrangement of spikelets ;

b, a single spikelet ; c and d, floret .... 252

28. Eescue-grass {Bromus unioloides) : a, glumes ; b, lemma ;

c, palea 257

29. Foxtail millet {Setaria italica) : a and b, dorsal and ventral

views of a spikelet ; c, lemma 287

30. Texas millet (Panicum texanum) : a and b, dorsal and ven-

tral views of a spikelet; c, lemma ..... 297

31. Canary grass {Phalaris canariensis) 300

32. Map of the United States, showing production of alfalfa hay

by tons in 1909. Each dot equals 2000 tons . . .311 83. Map of the United States and Canada, showing acreage of

alfalfa. Figures equal acres 312

34. An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa . . .341

35. A well-set cluster of alfalfa pods 347

36. Alfalfa seeds : a, individual seeds, showing variation in

form ; b, edge view of a seed, showing scar ; c, natural size of seeds 349

37. Dodder or love-vine growing on alfalfa .... 355

38. Adult form of the alfalfa weevil {Phytonomus posticus) :

Adults clustering on and attacking a spray of alfalfa. (Slightly enlarged) 359

40. Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States,

41. Stages in the development of red clover seed : a and c, flower

in prime and ripe ; b and d, immature and mature seed vessel ; e, mature seed 388

XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIOtTBE PAGE

42. A bunching attachment or swather on an ordinary mower . 390

43. Seeds of red clover : 1, side view and, 2, edge view of seeds ;

3, the triangular form indicated; 4, a seed cut lengthwise ; 5, a seed cut crosswise, showing the embryo ; a, a seed scar ; b, a stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6, a pod of red clover ; 7, natural size of seeds 892

44. Sketch showing the effect of the clover-seed chalcis fly :

calyx (a), seed capsule (b), and seeds (c and d). At c

the mature insect is shown in the act of emerging . . 402

45. Alsike clover seeds : a, seeds showing variation in form and

surface appearance, enlarged ; b, natural size of seeds . 409

47. Seeds of sweet clover : a, seeds showing variation in form

and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, a pod of sweet clover 424

49. Seeds of crimson clover (enlarged and natural size) . . 434

50. Seeds of yellow trefoil : a, seeds showing variation in form

and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of trefoil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil .... 436

51. Field pea 442

52. Seeds of common vetch (T7cm saliva). (Natural size) . 467

53. Seed scar of common vetch. (Enlarged) .... 467

54. Types of mottling of seeds of common vetch : a and b, from

light and dark seeds, respectively. (Enlarged) . . 467

56. Seeds of hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa) . Natural size . . 476

57. Seed scar of hairy vetch: a and b, forms showing the white,

central slit of some scars. (Enlarged) .... 476

. 483

. 492

. 512

. 525

. 585

58. Tangier pea ......

61. Roots of soybean, showing nodules

62. Root crops, 1909-1910. Figures equal acres

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE FACING PACK

I. Panicles of Canada Blue-grass and Kentucky Blue-grass 164 *"

II. A Field of Gooseneck Sorgo in Texas .... 2(J6 '^

III. Sudan-grass and Natural Hybrids ..... 280 '

IV. A Field of Sudan-grass in Virginia ..... 282 ^

j A Field of Sumac Sorgo in Texas 1 ^ \ A Field of Red Clover in Washington State j

VI. Hairy Vetch and Rye 474 '

VII. Groit Cowpeas in a Broadcasted Field in Virginia . . 490 ^

VIII. Seeds of Soybeans, Cowpeas, Velvet-beans, Pods of ^^

Florida Velvet-bean and Yokohama Bean . . . 510

XXI rOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIE CULTDEE

Introduction

Domestic animals are an indispensable part of a good agriculture, even though they may have no place in the business of some of the high-class specialty farmers. To rear animals necessitates forage ; and the more important the animal production, the greater is the necessity that the forage be grown as a crop and be made a part of the farm scheme. The forage crops are now of many kinds, and they are taking their places in the regular farm-management plans of the forward farmer. These crops also have their own value as marketable products, constituting one of the important cash incomes of the farm.

1. Definitions. — Forage includes any vegetable matter, fresh or cured, eaten by herbivorous animals, such as grain, hay, pasturage, green feed, roots and silage. The iQvm. feed is synonymous with forage, although sometimes restricted to grain. Fodder and stover are also identical in original meaning, but in the United States are used with special significations.

Forage crops include only those plants grown primarily for feed and of which animals consume all or much of the vegetative parts ; that is, herbage, or roots. Most cereal crops are also grown for hay, pasturage or silage, and when thus grown may be considered forage crops. Several plants cultivated in other regions as cereals are in the United States grown mainly or wholly for forage. Among these are the grain sorghums, penicillaria, foxtail millet and proso or broom-corn millet. The distinction between cereals and forage crops in such cases is arbitrary. Such a plant is a cereal when grown primarily for the grain, and a forage when grown primarily for the herbage.

Fodder (German f utter) really means the same as feed. In the United States the term is used mainly in reference to corn cut before the plant is fully mature, and from which the ears are not removed. The stems and leaves when dried and after the ears are removed is called stover. In the Southern States the term fodder is applied to the dried leaves and tops of the corn plant, removed while green, and before the ears are fully mature.

The terms fodder and stover are also used in connection with the sorghums and similar coarse grasses.

Hay consists of the entire dried herbage of comparatively fine-stemmed grasses or other forage plants. It is commonly dried or cured in the sun, but artificial drying apparatus has been used. The process of curing is not merely one of drying, as grass dried quickly with artificial heat is quite different from that cured with relative slowness. Under the latter conditions fermentative changes take place, due mainly to enzymes, which give freshly cured hay a characteristic aroma varying with the plant used. This odor is much less evident in plants quickly dried.

Brown hay is prepared by stacking grass or clover when only half cured, on account of which it undergoes fermentation with heating. The product is brown and compact. Brown hay is commonly prepared in regions where on account of climatic conditions dry curing is difficult. It is somewhat intermediate between hay and silage in quality.

Soiling is a term used to denote feeding with green plants, when the plants are cut and carried to the animals. Next to pasturing, this is the most primitive way of feeding animals. It is practically the only way that cut herbage is used in half-civilized countries.

Silage is prepared by compacting green herbage in an air-tight receptacle in which it undergoes fermentation. In America the principal crop used for silage is corn, and this, after cutting in small pieces so that it will pack closely, is placed in a specially constructed silo to insure fermentation under nearly anaerobic conditions. The material is ensilaged in the silo.