Essential studies in English

PART ONE CAROLYN M. ROBBINS Training Teacher, State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota

ROBERT KEABLE ROW

Formerly Instructor in Education, University of Chicago; Superintendent of Schools, Berwyn, Illinois

and ANGELO C. SCOTT, A. M., LL. M.

Formerly President and Professor of the English Language and Literature, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College f Director of Extension Lectures, University of Oklahoma

CHICAGO NEW YORK

ROW, PETERSON CBk COMPANY

Copyright, 1907, by CAROLYN M. ROBBINS AND R. K. ROW

Copyright, 1908, by A. C. SCOTT

Copyright, 1914, by ROW, PETERSON & CO.

JUL 23 \m

Preface

From an educational point of view, the only justification of a new text-book is that the author sees clearly a problem, not satisfactorily solved, and believes that, as a result of careful investigation and thorough testing of material and method, he has a distinctly better solution than has already been offered. The teaching of English grammar in elementary schools is still an unsolved .problem, though many eminent scholars and teachers have essayed its solution.

The most prevalent, serious mistake, in this connection, has been the attempt to teach grammar too early in the school course. English grammar is a highly abstract science, because it is the study of thought expressed in symbols. The analysis of language is, therefore, the analysis of thought and the modes of its expression. Grammar has been called the logic of the common schools. It might more appropriately be called the psychology of those schools. When we remember how complex the thought processes in English civilization have become, and how the language has been developed and adapted to express every differentiation of thought and feeling, we may realize, in some measure, the difficulty of a systematic study of such a language.

It is true, there are some very simple elements in all thinking, and, hence, correspondingly simple elements in language, but in language that is worthy of careful study these simple elements are not, to any considerable extent, isolated. They iv PREFACE

are usually embedded in, and logically inseparable from, a matrix of more complex elements. If the simple elements are picked out of their setting, or simple constructions are made for the special purpose of exemplifying grammar, the material, not genuine language, is probably not worth studying. A second common error in text-books on grammar for elementary schools has been the attempt to teach too much; that is, to analyze elements too minutely, to tease out overnice distinctions and, hence, to make unnecessary classifications. Important fundamental conceptions have been obscured by the mass of details. The really vital problems have been treated in a superficial way and the result, commonly, has been confusion, misapprehension, and often disgust with the very name ''grammar."

Prominent among the features of this book is a carefully planned effort to eliminate these two errors. No attempt has been made to write the subject down to the thinking level of young children, to furnish predigested grammatical food for infants. It is believed that but few children are intellectually prepared for the real problems of formal English grammar until they enter upoii the last two years of the elementary school course. Even then, with the best graded line of approach, the work soon becomes sufficiently difficult to challenge the mettle of the best thinkers in the classes.

Nor does the book assume to complete the study of the subject. Some phases of English grammar belong in the high school. The aim is to provide for a careful, thorough study of the fundamental principles, so that, if the pupil has no opportunity for the further study of the subject, he will really know, and be able to use, what he has studied. While, if he

PREFACE V

can continue the study of English, or other languages, his equipment for that later study is of the best kind.

A few years ago the school work in all the sciences was largely a matter of elaborate classifications. This was as true of English grammar as of plant or animal biology; but while the biologist has changed his attitude and now places the emphasis upon function and relation, the grammarian usually adheres to all the useless old distinctions and classifications. This text places the stress upon function and relation, and omits all reference to many such useless distinctions as are implied in : abstract and concrete nouns ; common gender ; participial and compound adjectives; logical and grammatical predicate; the classification of prepositions and of adverbial clauses ; and many like refinements of no interest or value to children.

It has been the aim of the authors to make this book both logical and psychological. The general plan is based on the fundamental conception that the sentence is the unit of language, and that the scientific study of language should begin with the unit. Further, that the first step in analyzing this unit gives us subject and predicate, the two essential elements. At this point two reasonable courses are open; first, to continue the analysis of the sentence, isolating the various word, clause, and phrase modifiers of the subject and of the predicate, and then modifiers of the modifiers, and so on; or, second to begin the study of the function and relation in the sentence of words, as such. In this book the second course has been chosen, not because it is more logical than the other, but because it is more psychological. It is the line of least resistance which the mind of the learner, in beginning the vi PREFACE

study of grammar, will naturally take. For example, it is vastly easier for the beginner to understand the noun than to understand the substantive phrase or the substantive clause. Similarly, it is much easier to get a clear notion of an adjective or of an adverb, than of the more complex corresponding elements of the sentence, the phrase and the clause. But, when clear ideas of the noun, the adjective, and the adverb have been formed, the enlargement of these ideas to include the corresponding phrases and clauses presents no difficulty. The process of thus enlarging the concept will follow as the normal mental movement in the study of grammar.

The inductive method of development has been followed throughout this book, but care has been taken not to pursue this method unnecessarily in particular cases. Just as the teacher may do too much for the pupil, a book may easily do too much for the teacher, depriving her of the opportunity and privilege of self-direction and individual motive and effort. In the development work the aim has been to start it right, but to leave, in the main, the elaboration of the topic to the teacher and the class.

Frequently, the study of grammar largely eliminates the study and practice of composition. To prevent this error some authors have mixed more or less composition throughout their grammar. The plan appears pedagogical, but in application it has been found that each subject loses much in individuality and continuity. In this book these two subjects have been kept separate, prominence being given to the grammar. The section on composition is not intended to furnish material for, or even to indicate, all that should be done in the upper grades in this subject. The purpose is to direct the work in composi-

PREFACE vii

tion along organized lines, to provide some good models, to stimulate thoughtful interest in the simpler and more obvious principles of the art of composition, and to encourage freedom and spontaneity in the practice of both oral and written language.

It must not be assumed that this, or any other book, can teach composition. That can be done only by an enthusiastic, skillful, painstaking personality. The best book is' only an aid. The teacher should be infinitely more than the book. Moreover, much of the best work in composition should grow out of the regular work in other subjects of study; a line of work which cannot be provided for in a text-book. It is hoped, however, that teachers will not only find the material here given valuable ; but will see how the suggestions ofifered and the principles developed are directly helpful in all composition.

The manuscript of this text was the result of several years of patient labor, during which time the authors have had the benefit of helpful criticisms and suggestions from numerous teachers. The work was begun and well organized under the inspiring direction of the late Edward Searing, then President of the State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota. Especially grateful acknowledgment for work on the manuscript is due to Mr. A. V. Greenman, Superintendent of Schools, Aurora, Illinois ; Mr. David Orland Coate, Department of English, State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota; and Miss Harriot B. Ely, Instructor in Enghsh, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.

Preface To "practical English"

''Practical English," bound with this volume, is really Part I of the language book of the same name, which in its entirety contains three other Parts : "Errors of Usage," ''Punctuation and the Use of Capitals," and "Composition." These Parts are especially adapted to use in the first year of the high school, but the Part included in this volume touches practically no point or principle which the pupil has not previously studied. It is- a practice treatise — an application of what the pupil has already learned.

The importance — indeed, the necessity — of such practical work is too obvious to need emphasizing. Everywhere throughout the grades and the secondary schools, attention should be given to the correct use of English, in writing and in speech ; but somewhere in the course a determined and concentrated attack on the centers of corruption in our language should be made. Logically this should be done upon the completion of the study of formal grammar ; and so it is done here. Yet the fact is reaHzed that the pupil at this point is still immature, and that he has not had what might be called advanced grammar; therefore the text does not profess to be comprehensive or elaborate, and it purposely avoids discussion of nice or technical distinctions and refined points of usage.

The author has had occasion to consult very many standard texts on English in the preparation of this volume, and is indebted to them for valuable suggestions. He desires to express special obligation to his friend and colleague, Professor Robert H. Tucker, and to Dr. William Herbert Corruth of Leland Stanford Junior University for generous and valuable assistance.

viii

Contents

Grammar Chapter page

Introduction xiii

I. Sentences 1

Introduction

TO THE PUPILS

You are about to take up a new subject of study, and you naturally want to know what is meant by Grammar, and why you should be asked to study it. These things you have a right to know, so far as you can readily understand and appreciate them, before you begin the study.

Grammar, as you will have to do with it, is the study of words, and groups of words, according to the work they do, and the relations they bear to one another in sentences. You will find that different words, like different men and women, do different kinds of work, have different occupations. Just as men are classified as farmers, merchants, carpenters, printers, tailors, and so on, according to the work they do, so you will find words classified according to the work they do in sentences. Moreover, just as members of a family are related and work together for the good of all', so you will find words related and working together to make sentences.

You have been studying language all your life and have learned a great deal about it in a practical way. You understand what you hear and, in a large measure, what you read in one language, and possibly more. You can make yourself understood in speech or in written expression. Now, words are instruments, sort of tools, of our thinking. Other things being equal, he is the best worker who best understands his tools. It is still possible for you to learn much more than you xii STUDIES IN ENGLISH

know about the use of our language. In other words, you can get much more complete control of these tools, both as a means of understanding what others have written, and of thinking clearly and saying well what you think.

A good old proverb says : *'A man is known by the company he keeps." There is a simpler and more practical test. "A man is known by the language he speaks." This test is comprehensive. The language one uses not only indicates the kind and character of his education, but it shows the degree of refinement and culture in that education. J\Iore than that, it is, in many ways, a measure of one's power. In whatever one undertakes to do, much depends upon his power to express himself in appropriate, correct, clear, forceful language. In business the man who can say what he wishes in the best way, has the best chance of success. Men who excel in letter-writing are in great demand. In professional life, in social life, and in public affairs, skillful command of language is generally a condition of influence and success.

The study of grammar is one of the means of gaining this power. It will enable you to see how others have expressed their thoughts. It shows how different ideas are related one to another in a sentence, and how these relations are more clearly, more forcefully, more appropriately expressed in good language than in defective language. It shows why certain forms of expression are wrong and other forms right. This will enable you to criticise your own language and thus improve it. There are many who maintain that the study of grammar does not help us to speak or write correctly. This is true only of young children, too young to understand grammar, or of mature persons whose language habits are permanently fixed. When a student is able to understand grammar,

INTRODUCTION xill

becomes conscious that he uses incorrect forms, and wishes to use correct language, a knowledge of grammar will help him very much, especially in his written expression, and the practice in writing carefully and correctly will improve his spoken language.

More important, however, than anything else is the training in thinking. For the most part we think in words and all efforts to realize clear, accurate, full expression help to make the thinking clearer and truer. But, the study of grammar is itself the best of training in thinking. No one can ever learn grammar by merely memorizing the words of a book or by trying to remember what some one says about it. From first to last the study of grammar requires clear thinking. This does not imply that the subject is all difficult. On the contrary, the beginning of grammar can and should be made quite easy; but, easy or difficult, it must be thoroughly understood. In some studies such as reading, spelling and some parts of geography, one may miss a dozen lessons, and take up the work later without difficulty. This is not true of grammar. In a well planned study of grammar there are a certain number of steps arranged in a certain order. The steps from twenty to thirty, for example, depend upon a knowledge of all that precede them. The old adage :

One thing at a time, and that done well, Is a very good rule, as many can tell, —

is especially applicable to the study of this subject.

Whether you enjoy the study of grammar or not, depends chiefly upon yourself. If you do not like discovering differences in the meaning of words, if you care little whether you say things in a right way or a wrong way, if you are satisfied to read things without more than half knowing what they mean, if you think this week's lessons can just about as well be learned next week, you will probably find the study of grammar dull and difficult. But, if you enjoy thinking things out for yourself, if you refuse to let things go without understanding them, if you know the joy of mastering each step as you go, if you take pride in knowing the difference between correct and incorrect English, you will probably find the study of grammar very interesting and enjoyable.

GRAMMAR

SENTENCES

STUDY 1 Classification

1. Near yonder forest. 2. The swaying trees. 3. Many flowers bloom in our garden. 4. Jason caught the fleece from the tree. 5. His threadbare clothes. 6. The groves were God's first temples.

From the above groups of words select those that are sentences. If you omit any, explain why. Complete such, making them sentences. What condition is necessary in order that a group of words may be a sentence ?

A group of words that expresses a thought is a sentence.

1. I have solved my problems. 2. Give the flower to your sister. 3. He bore a little crutch. 4. Can you explain what you mean? 5. Sing the song softly. 6. Oh, see the rainbow! 7. What time is it? 8. Look, here comes the carriage !

Which of the preceding sentences simply make statements? Which ask questions? Which exclaim? Which command?

A sentence that merely makes a statement is a declarative sentence.

A sentence that gives a command is an imperative sentence.

A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sentence.

A sentence that expresses sudden or strong feeling is an exclamatory sentence.

STUDY 2 Classification of Sentences

Tell the kind of each sentence :

1. Live for something.

2. The English captured the town.

3. The oar has fallen overboard!

5. Hold the pencil between the flame of a lamp and the sheet of paper.

6. Write your name in kindness, love, and mercy in the hearts of your friends.

7. Close the door.

8. The man was wealthy.

9. Consider the ravens.

10. He ran to meet his father.

11. It is a sin to steal.

12. The teacher helped the boy work his problem.

13. Oh, the horse is running away !

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 3

STUDY 3 Classification of Sentences

Classify the following sentences :

1. John, give the boy a warning.

2. Who is coming?

3. I saw the picture that you painted.

4. Tell him the news. '

5. The grapes are too sour.

6. It is snowing!

7. The baby cried twice yesterday.

8. Have you ever crossed the ocean?

9. Can you visit us to-morrow ?

10. Give us the beautiful flowers.

11. Who was there?

12. Why did he come?

13. Give me the fish.

14. How well you sing!

STUDY 4 Classification of Sentences Tell the kind of each sentence in the following :

Quite a little tumult of whispers was in Pandora's ear. "Let us out, dear Pandora, pray let us out ! We shall be such nice pretty playfellows for you 1 Only let us out I"

All this made Pandora curious. "What can it be? Is something alive in the box? Well, I am resolved to take just one peep ; and then the lid shall be shut down as softly as ever ! No harm can possibly come from just one little peep!"

What was Epimetheus doing all this time? This was the first time, since his little playmate had come to dwell with him, that he had attempted to enjoy any pleasure without her. (Adapted.) — Nathaniel hawthorne.

Classification of Sentences

Write, or find in some book you are reading, five declarative sentences, five imperative sentences, five interrogative sentences, five exclamatory sentences.

According to use sentences are classified as :

1. Declarative.

3. Interrogative.

4. Exclamatory.

Chapter II Subject And Predicate

STUDY 6 The Subject

1. The wind blows softly. 2. Charity sufifereth long and is kind. 3. How far that little candle throws its beams!

About what does the first sentence tell something? The second? The third?

The part of the sentence denoting the thing about which something is told is the subject.

(Note. — In an imperative sentence the subject is always thou, ye or yoH, and generally is not expressed.)

Find the subject in each of the following sentences:

2. Richard was cruel.

3. I shall study my lessons.

4. Has an hour passed?

5. True work is never a disgrace.

6. The parent of vice is idleness.

7. A shadow has fallen on her path.

8. The young man was sitting near the table.

9. Walk carefully.

10. Put your papers here.

11. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man.

12. Did the brave soldier come here?

13. You always say things pleasantly.

14. ]\Iagellan sailed around the world.

15. Your teacher will help you.

16. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.

17. Now fades the glimmering landscape.

18. Did the waves wash away your fine castles of sand?

19. Oh, I may go!

20. Shall you see the procession?

STUDY 7 The Predicate

1. The wind blows softly. 2. Charity suiTereth long and is kind. 3. How far that little candle throws its beams!

What is told about the subject in the first sentence? In the second? In the third?

The part of the sentence that tells something about the thing represented by the subject is the predicate.

Find the predicate in each of the sentences in the preceding study. Tell what kind of sentence each is.

Chapter III Parts Of Speech

STUDY 8 The Noun

I. Flowers and ferns grow on the shore of the lake. 2. James and his father shipped wheat to town on Monday.

In these sentences find each word that names something.

A word that names something is a noun.

Select the nouns in these sentences :

1. His father died last week.

2. The girls sang three songs.

3. The clergyman preached a long sermon.

4. Kit was a shock-headed, shambling, awkward lad, with a wide mouth, red cheeks, a turned-up nose, and a comical expression of face.

5. Jack and Jill went up the hill.

6. John will study algebra and history.

7. The boy and his sister are playing on the beach.

8. The doctor is a man of few w^ords.

9. That building across the river is a schoolhouse. 10. The banks of the river are overgrown with brush.

II. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. 12. He wrote an article about ants.

Find the subject and the predicate in each of the preceding sentences.

STUDY 10 The Pronoun

1. I have a letter for you. 2. He tired himself. 3. We have books for them.

In these sentences find each word that stands for a noun.

A word that stands for a noun is a pronoun.

Pronouns denote persons or things without naming them.

Find the nouns and the pronouns in the followingsentences :

1. She will not play with him.

2. He seldom goes among men.

3. Will you stand by me?

4. Over our heads was an awning.

5. After the battle is over, they count up their losses.

6. I shall look into the matter.

7. That is his hat.

8. Who called so loud?

9. I harnessed my horse with that of my neighbor. 10. He gave several to me.

I

THE ADJECTIVE 9

11. A farmer set a trap in the field for the cranes which were stealing his corn. Next day he found in it several cranes and a stork. ''Spare me," cried the stork, "I am not a crane, I have not eaten any of your corn." "That may be true," replied the farmer, "but this I know, I caught you in my field with thieves, and you must suffer with them."

Classify the preceding sentences, and divide each into subject and predicate.

STUDY 12 The Adjective

Flowers grow in the garden. Judging from what the sentence tells, what kind of flowers grow in the garden ?

Small flowers grow in the garden. Can you now tell anything more about the flowers?

1. Flowers grow in the garden. .

2. Small flowers grow 'in the garden.

3. Small, fragrant flowers grow in the garden.

Compare these three sentences. In which has the noun flowers the broadest meaning, i. e., in which sentence may the noun flowers mean the greatest variety, large and small, beautiful and not beautiful, fragrant and not fragrant, colored and white? In which sentence is the noun flozvers limited to a special or narrower meaning? What words limit the meaning of the noun flowers?

A word that limits the meaning of a noun or a pronoun is an adjective.

Select the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in these sentences :

1. The wise old owl dozed in an ancient tower.

2. Three men sailed in that boat.

3. He was refined by visits to other lands and by association with many men.

4. The cheeks of the old man were scorched into a dusky red color by two fiery little gray eyes.

5. The mountains gave the lost children berries and water.

6. On the wide lawn the snow lay white and deep.

7. The noblest mind the best contentment has.

8. Many a carol old and saintly sang the minstrels.

9. A little learniiig is a dangerous thing.

10. The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers.

11. This industrious boy is the best student among all my hundred pupils.

12. The sea is fascinating and treacherous.

Select the subject and the predicate in each of the preceding sentences.

THE VERB 11

The Verb

1. He came an hour later. 2. There was a king in those days. 3. Tall trees stand by the river. A word that asserts is a verb.

Define predicate of a sentence. In each of these sentences find the part that is necessai-y to tell or assert something about the subject.

Observe that the verb may assert in dififerent ways : by expressing action, as came in sentence 1 ; by expressing existence, as was in sentence 2 ; or by expressing a state or condition, as stand in sentence 3.

Find the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following sentences:

1. A robin built a nest near our house.

2. (You) Hear the shouts of the schoolboys.

3. (You) Lend me your ears.

4. Hearest thou the din of the battle?

5. A tall old-fashioned clock with heavy weights stood

on the landing.

6. She plucked the flower and threw it to her friend.

7. (You) Tie the horse.

8. Which is your brother?

9. Bring me the book on the table.

10. Shall we gather strength from irresolution and inaction ?

11. The clerk had applauded.

12. The air was filled with phantoms.

13. How great was the mystery!

14. I was keeping my grapes.

15. The man rode home.

16. Which boy did the will of his father?

17. Every turf beneath their feet shall be a soldier's sepulchre.

18. How wonderful is the advent of spring!

19. Is your master ill?

20. Hearken ! he speaketh yet.

Tell the kind of each of the preceding sentences. Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

STUDY 16 The Preposition

The house on the hill has been sold. In this sentence what is the relation of the house to the hill? What word expresses this relation?

The boy slid down the hill. What is the relation of the act of sliding to the hill? What word shows this relation ?

A word used with a noun, or its equivalent, to show its relation to some other word in the sentence is a preposition.

Find the verbs and the prepositions In these sentences; select the words between which each preposition shows relation :

THE ADVERB 13

1. This work was done by an artist.

2. I sent a letter to my friend.

3. This book on the table was written for my brother.

4. The cat ran under the house.

5. She sprang after the ball.

6. I lost it on the road to town.

7. He went before me.

8. That dog in the yard jumped over the fence.

9. He wrote to me regarding the matter.

10. The sea gull darted through the air into the water.

11. The coat with the wide collar belongs to our guest.

12. The lady scarcely spoke a word during the long journey.

STUDY 17 The Adverb

1. He plays skillfully. 2. Hardy soon comforted him greatly. 3. Our man of letters was peculiarly happy. 4. The invention is wholly new.

In these sentences find the words that affect the meaning of a verb or an adjective. Taking the sentences in order, explain how each of these words changes the meaning of the verb or the adjective.

Words that change the meaning of verbs or adjectives are called adverbs.

Sometimes an adverb changes the meaning of another adverb; as, He plays very skillfully; She sings quite well.

An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

(Note. — In rare cases the adverb seems to modify a preposition, and sometimes the group of words introduced by the preposition. Such a group is called a phrase.)

Select the adverbs in these sentences, and tell what kind of word each modifies:

1. The clerk involuntarily applauded.

2. The bundle is very heavy.

3. My brown dress must be mended soon.

5. The lanterns were dimly burning.

6. My old friend is seriously ill.

7. The teacher will return presently.

8. The river rose rapidly.

9. It stood just under the eaves.

10. This gift is especially appropriate.

11. You know this quite well.

12. A fair young soldier lay quietly beside him.

STUDY 18 The Conjunction

1. The tree is tall and straight. 2. The ball flew over the net but into my hands. 3. We must fight or we must fly.

In each of these sentences find a word that connects other words or groups of words.