A modern English grammar revised, with practical exercises

Preface

When "A Modern English Grammar" was published in 1900 as "an attempt to present the subject in a manner prescribed by modern methods of instruction," approximately one-third of the book was given to a discussion of sentences and their structure, and the remaining two-thirds to an examination of the parts of speech. This reversal of the customary plan was then regarded as something of an innovation, but is now generally accepted as pedagogically correct.

The larger elements of s entence structure are the fou ndations of gramma r, and they mus t be learned thoroughly before the pupil is ready for the study of separate words. They influence both the classification and the inflection of the parts of speech. Therefore, neither the classification nor the inflection of the parts of speech can be effectively studied until these are mastered.

The enthusiastic welcome and wide acceptance of the book upon its first appearance encouraged the author to preserve and carefully collate all comments and criticisms which came to him from the classroom or elsewhere, and these have served as an index to point out where the text might be most profitably improved in the present revision.

While no change in the general plan of the original book has been found necessary, the improvements of

PREFACE

detail have been so numerous and so extensive that the revised edition may be said to be practically a new book.

The expository sections, which in some instances were unnecessarily long and abstruse, have been shortened and simplified wherever it seemed desirable. The definitions, after painstaking study, have been entirely rewritten. The nomenclature used, except in a few instances explained in the foot-notes, is that suggested in the " Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature," approved and recommended by the National Educational Association.

The exercises have been entirely worked over, regraded, and rearranged, and many new exercises have been added. Sentences that were too difficult have been omitted ; exercises that were too hard have been changed ; numerous exercises have been altered in form so as to give better pedagogical results; and new exercises of a practical character have been inserted where needed.

Numerous models for oral and written exercises have been added as a help to both pupil and teacher. The sections on certain subjects like "It" and "There" expletive, and transitive and intransitive verbs, which were introduced unnecessarily early, have been postponed to later pages. The ambiguity regarding the relation of infinitives and participles to the parts of speech has been removed. The treatment of phrases and clauses has been simplified and expanded. Disputed points have been either eliminated or fortified by references to accepted authorities. Larger type has been employed, and a free use made of small type to distinguish the less important from the more important.

iv

PREFACE

As explained in the preface to the first edition, the inductive method of presentation is employed to lead the pupil to o bser ve, compa re and classify the grammatical facts for himself.

The fund of knowledge that pupils bring into the classroom has also determined the limits which the author has set to his work. Many things often elaborately set forth in text-books may be safely taken for granted as already known. To explain them is a violation of the pedagogic maxim, " Teach the pupil what he does not know." Even the analysis of sentences, important as it is, has its limits as a means of instruction and training. In going beyond the general analysis which brings into relief the logical structure of a complex sentence we do not help the pupil, but present him with linguistic riddles that make his native tongue offensive to him.

As to inflections and the uses of the various parts of speech, these are already known empirically, and the bu sines s, of the grammarian is simply to help the pup il to systematize his knowledg e and to avoid common errors._ Distinctions and classifications, if they are too minute or numerous, confuse the mind and loosen its grasp of important things. The author has tried to make a book that will help teachers to awaken in boys and girls what is sometimes called the language sense, and strengthen their grasp of their mother tongue.

The total result is a text-book consistent with itself, well graded, easy for the pupil, and thoroughly workable for the teacher. The author hopes and believes that

1 S. S. Laurie: "Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School."

V

PREFACE

those who liked the original book will find the revised book greatly improved; and that those who found cause for criticism in the first edition will rind the cause removed in the revision.

H. G. B.

Lakeville, Connecticut, February, 19 14.

Contents

PAGE

Introduction i

Part I Chapter

I. Of Sentences in General. . . . 15

II. Of Subject and Predicate 21

III. Of Simple Subject and Verb 34

IV. Of Complements of the Verb 45

V. Of Modifiers 57

VI. Of Substantive Phrases and Clauses 90

VII. Of Independent Elements 99

VIII. Of Sentences as Simple, Complex, and Compound 106

IX. Of Elliptical Sentences 119

Part II

I. Of the Recognition of the Parts of Speech 125

II. Of Inflection, Derivation, and Compound Words . 162

III. Of Nouns 165

IV. Of Pronouns. 195

V. Of Adjectives 244

VI. Of Adverbs 257

VII. Of Verbs 266

VIII. Of Prepositions 337

IX. Of Conjunctions 343

X. Of Interjections 346

Introduction

1. Language. Everybody has an instinctive desire to tell his thoughts and feelings to others; indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social life. One way of expressing thoughts is to make motions with the hands or other parts of the body, as children and deaf and dumb persons do. But the usual and very much better way is to make with the tongue and adjoining organs certain combinations of sounds which by common consent have certain meanings. These combinations of tongue-sounds, by which people express their thoughts and feelings, form Language (from Latin lingua, "tongue"). Combinations of sounds that stand for single ideas are called Words. These are in turn combined into thought groups called Sentences.

Some knowledge of the history of our language is helpful to the study of it as it is to-day.

2. Why Our Language is Called English. Our language is called English because it is the language that has been spoken for more than fifteen hundred years in England, whence it has been carried to America and other parts of the world by English colonists.

3. The Early Home of English. But the English language did not have its beginning in England. It was carried there in 449 A.D. by people who migrated from the banks of the river Elbe and the southwest coasts of the Baltic Sea. These people were from three tribes, called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Of the Jutes who moved to England nearly

MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH.

all trace has been lost. The Angles and the Saxons drove the original inhabitants — the Britons — into the mountainous parts of the island, and in course of time founded the Anglo-Saxon race. They called their new country " Angleland," or "England"; themselves and their language they called " English/' The wonderful way in which the English language has spread over the world is shown by the accompanying maps. The preceding map shows the early home of English, when it was a mere dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The shaded portions of the map below show the region of the world in which English is now used.

Arctic Ocean tfj^fcj

Borm»y&Co 1 ,N.T.

MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

How far English has outstripped other languages may be seen from the following table, which shows the number of people speaking the principal European languages in 1890:

Portuguese 13,000,000

4. Old English Different from Modern English.

The language carried to England by the Anglo- Saxons was so unlike the English of to-day that at first glance it seems to be quite a different tongue. Here, for example, is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo- Saxon, or Old English, with the corresponding modern English words printed underneath:

Faeder ure,

Father our, thou that art in heavens

Si f>in nama gehalgod Be thy name hallowed

To becume thin rice Arrive thy kingdom

GeweorJ?e )?in willa on eor)?an, swa swa on heofenum Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heavens

Urne daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg Our daily loaf give us to-day

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgif a J? urum gyltendum And forgive us our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors

And ne geliede Jm us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil

SoJ?lice.

Soothly {Amen).

5. Relation of Old English to Modern English.

Strange-looking as this Old English is, it is the same language as that which we use. The difference between it and modern English is no more to be wondered at than the difference between a young child and the same child when grown to manhood.

6. How Our Language has Grown. When our language was carried to England, it consisted of probably not more than two thousand words; now it contains more than two hundred thousand — a much larger number than any other language. These new words have come into the language in many interesting ways:

(1) British Words. When the Anglo-Saxons settled in England and drove off the Britons, they adopted some British words, just as the Americans have adopted some Indian words. Of these words, adopted from the Britons, examples are: " dun " and " down " (meaning " hill ").

ROMAN WALL IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND.

Built by the Romans as a defense against native tribes.

(2) Latin Words Found in Britain. For several hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo- Saxons, England had been in the possession of the Romans. When the Romans withdrew from the island in 410 A.D., they left behind a few Latin words, which were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons. Examples are: " port " (Latin portus), "mile" (Latin milia passuum, "a thousand paces"), and " wall " (Latin vallum).

(3) Missionary Words. About the year 600 A.D. Christianity began to be received by the Saxons through Roman missionaries; and with the missionaries came many new words from the Latin. Examples are: "monk" (Latin monachus) and "clerk " (Latin clericus).

ANCIENT DANISH BOAT FOR FOURTEEN PAIRS OF OARS.

78 feet long, 10 feet broad. Found in a peat bog in Jutland.

(4) Danish Words. Toward the end of the eighth century Norsemen or Danes overran parts of England, and many of their words were adopted by the English. Examples are: " sky " and " call."

(5) Norman-French Words. In 1066 William of Normandy conquered England in the great movement known as the Norman Invasion. The Normans, who came from France, spoke Norman- French, which was for the most part modified Latin. In England they seized the land and all the political power, filled all the offices, and made their language the language of the court, the law, the schools, and the church. We cannot dwell on the particulars of the tremendous change in our language which was wrought by this Norman Invasion. It is enough to say that after three hundred years of contact with Norman-French the English language was very much richer in vocabulary and softer in sound. Of the many hundreds of Norman-French words in our language examples are: "battle," "forest," " duke," and " peace."

(6) Words from Latin Books. In the sixteenth century, through the influence of what is called the Revival of Learning, the study of Latin became very popular in England. No one was considered well educated unless he could read Latin ; nearly all important books were written in Latin; and Latin words began to appear in English conversation and writing. Since these Latin-English words were learned from books, they closely resembled in spelling the original Latin words. Examples are : " fact " (Latin factum), " example " (Latin exemplum), and " quiet " (Latin quietus).

(7) Imported Words. The descendants of the Anglo-Saxons have always been great travelers and traders; and in their traveling and trading they have collected words from all parts of the world. Examples are: from Spain, " mosquito"; from Italy, " piano"; from Holland, "skate"; from Germany, " zinc"; from Africa, " gorilla"; from the American Indian, " hammock " and " hominy"; from Arabia, "sofa"; from China, "tea"; from Portugal, " binnacle" ; from Persia, " bazar" ; from Australia, " kangaroo."

(8) New Words for New Things. New discoveries and inventions, as they have occurred, have given new words to our language. Examples are: "photograph " and " telephone."

7. Proportion of Foreign Words in Modern English. The proportion of words in modern English which have been drawn from the sources just described may be roughly represented as follows:

Old English Word,

Latin Words (including Norman-French)

Persian, American Indian, etc.

8. Changes in Our Language. Our language has not only grown; it has changed. Old English was what is called a highly inflected language. An inflected language is one that joins words together in sentences by means of " inflections " or changes in the words themselves. For example, in Old English oxan meant " oxen," oxena meant " of oxen," oxum meant " with oxen." Accordingly, instead of saying as we do " tongues of oxen," our Anglo-Saxon ancestors said " tungan oxena." Traces of these word-changes or inflections still remain in our language: as, " sing," " sings."

9. How Changes Came About. The greatest changes in our language occurred between noo and 1500 A.D., that is to say, during the four centuries that followed the Norman Conquest. The story of the changes is too long to be told here; but some idea of how they came about may be gained by noticing what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only half learned English tries to speak it. He mispronounces the words and neglects the inflections. In somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman-French became one people, and their languages were fused into modern English, sounds were modified and inflections were dropped.

10. Language Still Subject to Change. Since the invention of printing, changes in English have not been numerous; for the vast number of printed books and papers, and the immense spread of the ability to read and write, have given to our language a stability of form which it could not have so long as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For example, io INTRODUCTION

the language of the English Bible, which is sixteenthcentury English, differs comparatively little from the English of to-day. But some change is still going on,

EARLY PRINTING PRESS.

for modifying influences are always at work. Englishspeaking people in different parts of the world do not talk exactly alike; new words are coming in; old words are dropping out; the forms and uses of other words are changing. An example of this modern change is found in the word " whom." The " m " in this word is an inflection; and we still say, when we wish to speak grammatically, " Whom did you see?" But since the " m " is not necessary to the meaning, people have long been careless about using it, and even good speakers often say, " Who did you see?" 1

1 T. R. Lounsbury: "History of the English Language."

INTRODUCTION n

11. Good English. Good English is the English used by the best speakers and writers; and the use of such English is " only a phase of good manners." Bad English, that is, English unlike that which is used by well-informed and careful writers, produces in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which we get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It is with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons who wish to be classed as cultivated people must not only dress and act like cultivated people; they must also speak and write like them. A help toward this end is the study of grammar.

12. Grammar. Grammar is an account of the relations which words bear to one another when they are put together in sentences. An understanding of these relations requires some knowledge of the nature, the forms, and the history of words, but only so far as these bear on the uses of words in sentences. The proper starting point of English grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words considered by themselves belongs to the dictionary.

13. Uses of Grammar. It is not by grammar, however, that we learn to speak or write. Speaking and writing our mother tongue are habits, formed by imitation long, before we acquire that knowledge which is the subject-matter of grammar. The object of the study of grammar is to learn the uses of words in sentences, so that we may test the habits of speech which we have already acquired, and make them conform to the best models. Incidentally the study of grammar affords invaluable mental training.

14. Grammars Old and New. Among Englishspeaking peoples grammar was first studied as a step toward the learning of Latin, and the first English grammar was called an " Introduction to Lily's Latin Grammar." The author of that first English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather than on English, and making his work conform to Latin models, treated English as if it were in all important respects like Latin and Greek, with no history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact, English differs greatly from other languages. In structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the mistake of the first English grammar was followed by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years. Now we have learned better, and study our language with reference to its own nature and history.

PART I

Chapter I Of Sentences In General

15. Ideas. The word "dog," when heard or seen, instantly creates in the mind a mental picture of a well-known animal. This mental picture is called an Idea.

The idea may be made more definite by the addition of other words: as, "The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard" ; but though the idea now has several parts, it still remains a single mental picture, expressed by a group of related words.

16. Thoughts. The words " The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard" are satisfactory as an expression of a mental picture or idea; but as a statement they are incomplete, for we at once find ourselves asking, " Well, what about that dog?" We are satisfied when we hear that " The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard barked."

From the last group of words we get more than a single idea. We get, first, the idea of a certain dog, and, secondly, we get an idea of what the dog did. Of these ideas, the second is an assertion about the first.

Two ideas of this kind — something thought of and an assertion about it — together form a complete Thought.

17. Sentences. A group of words expressing a complete thought is called a Sentence.

"The big dog barking in the yard" is not a sentence, for it contains no assertion, and therefore, it does not express a complete thought. "Barking;" does not assert. It is merely a descriptive word, like "big," helping to fill out the mental picture of a certain dog, about which as yet no assertion has been made. "Big" shows the size of the dog, "barking" shows his occupation, "in the yard" shows his whereabouts; what the big dog barking in the yard did, we have yet to learn. The thought and the sentence become complete if we add an assertion: as, "The big dog barking in the yard frightened me" ; or if we connect "dog" and "barking" by an asserting word like "is" : as, "The big dog is barking in the yard."

De finition. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.

i. Tell which of the following groups of words are Sentences. Make Sentences with the other groups by adding appropriate asserting words:

i. The man in the moon.

Model for Oral Exercise. "The man in the moon" is not a sentence because it does not express a complete thought. "The man in the moon has a broad face" is a sentence, the thought being completed by the assertion "has a broad face."

Model for Written Exercise. Not a sentence. "The man in the moon has a broad face."

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 17

2. The man in the moon came down too soon.

3. The boy in blue.

4. The boy reciting his lesson.

5. The boy in blue reciting his lesson.

6. The boy reciting his lesson is my brother.

7. His attempt to catch the ball.

8. A primrose by the river's brim.

9. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

10. The children playing in the street.

11. Vessels carrying coal.

12. The apples hanging on the tree.

13. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

14. Charles, seeing a crowd in the street.

15. The girl at the spring, having rilled her pitcher.

16. To play football well.

i. Write five groups of related words, not Sentences, about things in the schoolroom, and show that they are not Sentences.

2. Write five Sentences about things in the schoolroom, and show that they are Sentences.

18. Sentences Classified. Examine the sentences in the following conversation:

Donald: I found these big apples in grandfather's barn. Dorothy: Show us where you got them.

Jack: Are there any more there?

Helen: Aren't they beauties!

You observe that Donald's thought is an assertion or statement; Dorothy's thought is a command or entreaty; Jack's thought is a question; Helen's thought seems at first glance to be a question about the beauty of the apples; but this cannot be, since she already knows that the apples are beauties.

She is merely expressing her strong feeling of delight by an exclamation, which has the form of a question.

Sentences that assert or declare are called Declarative Sentences.

Sentences that ask questions are called Interrogative Sentences.

Sentences that command or entreat are commonly called Imperative Sentences. 1

When declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences are used as exclamations expressing strong feeling, they are called Exclamatory Sentences.

Sentences not exclamatory are called Non-Exclamatory. All sentences are either Affirmative or Negative: as,

(Affirmative declarative) "She sings"; (Negative declarative) "She does not sing"; (Affirmative interrogative) "Does she sing?" (Negative interrogative) "Why doesn't she sing?"

Classify each Sentence in the following selections:

i. We all do fade as a leaf.

2. Fear God/ Honor the king.

3. The king is dead! Long live the king!

4. A living dog is better than a dead lion.

5. Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not be burned?

x The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends that the term Imperative Sentences be dropped, and that such sentences be included in Declarative or Interrogative as the case may be.

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 19

6. a. Half a league, half a league,

Half a league onward, All in the valley of death Rode the Six Hundred.

b. "Forward the Light Brigade!

c. Charge for the guns!" he said.

d. Into the valley of death Rode the Six Hundred. * # * * *

e. When can their glory fade !

f. O the wild charge they made!

g. All the world wonder 'd.

h. Honor the charge they made!

i. Honor the Light Brigade,

Noble Six Hundred!

19. Punctuation of Complete Sentences. In writing, the first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter.

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period (:). The end of an interrogative sentence is marked by an interrogation point (?). But if the sentence is exclamatory because of the strong feeling it expresses, an exclamation point (!) is used instead of the period or the interrogation point.

1. Write two Declarative sentences about noted men. 2. Write an Interrogative sentence about a person you know. 3. Write an Imperative sentence about something in the schoolroom. 4. Write an Exclamatory sentence about the weather.

20. Declarative Sentences Most Common. Most sentences are declarative.

Interrogative and imperative sentences are like declarative sentences in fundamental structure, the difference being often only a difference in the order of words: as, "Can he sing?" "He can sing."

In our study of sentence-structure, we shall speak chiefly of the declarative sentence, taking it as the type-form.

CHAPTER IJ

21. Two Necessary Parts to Every Sentence.

Examine the following sentences:

Naming Part Asserting Part

Fire burns.

I cut myself.

The school bell has just rung.

The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard barked at me.

You observe that each sentence has two parts — the naming part and an asserting part — and that both parts are necessary.

22. Subject and Predicate Defined. The part of a sentence which names that about which something is asserted is called the Subject.

The asserting part of a sentence is called the Predicate (Latin, "thing said").

Definition. The subject of a sentence is the part which denotes that about which something is asserted.

Definition. The predicate of a sentence is the part which makes the assertion.

In an interrogative sentence the predicate asks something. In an imperative sentence the predicate commands, and

the subject is generally omitted, because the subject of a command is always the person or persons spoken to, and to name it forget."

is unnecessary:' as, "Listen [ye]"; "Don't [you]

Write a Sentence suggested by each of Subjects:

-. 5. Chalk .

following

1. Flowers

2. Lions —

3. Indians

4. Stars —

6. Farmers ■

7. Chickens

8. Bees

11. Who

12. My desk

Write Sentences containing the following Predicates: — sing. 6. will be here soon.

climb, spin, trot, grow.

7. Can ride a bicycle?

8. Twice was thrown.

9". What large muscles

10. will help me?

has!

23. Position of the Subject.

not always come first. Thus:

Predicate

Up went

Then burst

There was

The last of all the bards was

In the shade of the great elm trees

stands

The subject does the balloon, his mighty heart, a little man. he.

a weather-beaten house.

Sometimes the subject is put between parts of the predicate like a wedge. In the following sentences, for example, the subjects are printed in italics :

Is Fred coming?

Where do pineapples grow?

How fast the snow falls!

Slowly and sadly we laid him down.

At the appointed time the gladiators marched into the arena.

Has every pupil in the class brought his books?

When the predicate of a declarative sentence follows the subject, the sentence is said to be in the Natural Order. When the predicate precedes the subject, the sentence is in Inverted Order.

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject and Predicate, and tell the kind of sentence:

I

1. Down went the Royal George.

Model for Oral Exercise. A declarative sentence. The subject is "the Royal George/' because it denotes that about which something is asserted. The predicate is "down went" (or, "went down") because it is the part which makes the assertion.

l To the Teacher. At this stage of the work no attention should be paid to the simple subject and the simple predicate, — a more difficult step in analysis which should be deferred till the next chapter. In the exercises in this chapter, attention should be fixed exclusively on the complete subject and the complete predicate.

''In accordance with sound modern tendencies in teaching, the first process in grammatical analysis should be^to deal with sentences as a whole, distinguishing subject and predicate, principal and subordinate clauses, etc." — Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, p. 13.

Model for Written Exercise.

S. P.

• The Royal George went down

2. Wise are all His ways.

3. Are your friends coming?

4. That gale I well remember.

5. Doubtful seemed the battle.

6. Of noble race the lady came.

7. Where did you find your book?

8. The way of transgressors is hard.

9. Great is your reward in heaven.

10. The memory of the just is blessed.

11. Up flew the windows all.

II

12. Our revels now are ended.

13. Overhead I heard a murmur.

14. Wherefore stopp'st thou me?

15. Which way does the wind come?

16. Flashed all their sabres bare.

17. Great is Diana of the Ephesians.

18. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

19. Ten spears he swept within his grasp.

20. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield.

21. Me he restored to mine office.

Ill

22. One new-made mound I saw close by.

23. Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave.

24. There lay the rider distorted and pale.

25. Where are those lights so many and fair?

26. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!

27. Books make up no small part of human happiness.

28. True valor lies between cowardice and rashness.

29. Of his early life few particulars have reached us.

30. About half past one in the afternoon Sir Walter Scott breathed his last, in the presence of all his children.

31. At the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Gettysburg fifty-three thousand old soldiers, both Union and Confederate, encamped on the battle-field in friendly reunion.

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject and Predicate:

i. At the door, on summer evenings, Sat the little Hiawatha.

2. On the ear

Drops the light drip of the suspended oar.

3. Her wing shall the eagle flap O'er the false-hearted.

4. The pavement damp and cold No smiling courtiers tread.