Anatomy and embalming

Front matter

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Preface

This book is the result of many years of contact with embalmers in training and in practice. We have included in this work a crystallization of essential information without which, the embalmer must be poorly equipped to carry out the many duties incident to his calling in a manner satisfactory to his patrons and to himself.

Having been thrown in contact with the many problems surrounding the education of the embalmer, the authors have gained many ideas as to just how to place the information before the embalmer so that the result will be reflected in an increased capacity for good work on the part of the individual embalmer.

In prescribing information for the embalmer in this manner, we know clearly just what is to be expected from the application of the sciences herein described, and wish for the novitiate and practitioner the same enthusiasm for actual knowledge that has helped us thus far in arranging the information.

In Part One, we have chronicled, from the word of historians and men of the present day, a condensed, yet complete exposition of the funeral customs relating to the

VI PREFACE

care of the dead, giving our readers a better understanding of present methods by reason of an opportunity to compare them with those of the past.

In Part Two, we have placed the ground work or foundation for the securing of the proper education in embalming. The work on Anatomy, which, if mastered by the student or practitioner, is by far the greatest lever in helping him to master his lif ework.

In Part Three, we have placed the practical application of the principles of modern embalming, tempered by the use of the sciences of pathology, bacteriology, and chemistry in our own application of the work and in its transcription to these pages.

In formulating the technical part of the work, we have been greatly assisted by many authorities among whom are: — Green, Howell, Thomas, Piersol, Gray, Spalteholz, Myers, Barnes, Henouard, Clarke, and those authors who have from time to time contributed articles to the current embalmers journals. We are deeply indebted to these men for the results of their work.

We have based the treatments given herein on the following classification of emblaming fluid as expressed in the percentage strength of formaldehyde gas contained within the fluid.

y 2 strength = standard fluid of 5% diluted to 2%% % strength = standard fluid of 5% diluted to 3%% Normal strength = standard fluid 5 %

1% strength = standard fluid of 5% raised to 6 1 / 4%

PREFACE Vll

As the existence of a calling or profession depends on a constant assimilation of newly discovered information counterbalanced by the throwing off of that which has been found faulty, we commend this book to the embalmer and hope that it will meet with all the requirements of the higher education, for which we are constantly battling.

THE AUTHORS.

CHAPTER II. Embalming from Egyptians down to the Civil War

Jews 15

Parisians 16

Babylonians 17

Scythians 17

Ethiopians 17

Romans 17

Greeks 17

Norsemen 18

Hindoos 18

French and Belgians 18

Britains 18

Peruvians 19

Aztecs 19

North American Indians 19

Early Christians 20

Later European Embalming 20

CHAPTER III. Holmes 25

Billow 26

Clarke 26

Renouard 27

Sullivan 27

Meyers 27

Barnes 27

ix

X TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV. Histology : Page

Definition 35

Tissues 37

Skin 37

The Nails 40

The Hair ; 41

The Fascia 43

The Lymphatics 44

Glands 47

Cartilage 48

Bones 48

Teeth 52

Nerves 53

Muscles 54

Tendons 55

Aponeuroses 55

Ligaments 55

Fat 56

Mucous Membranes 57

Serous Membranes 57

Synovial Membranes 57

Arteries 58

Veins 60

Blood 61

CHAPTER V. Osteology

Definition 69

The Skeleton 69

The Spine 71

The Skull 72

The Bones of the Cranium 74

The Bones of the Face 74

The Hyoid Bone 75

The Bones of the Thorax 76

The Bones of the Upper Extremities 77

The Bones of the Lower Extremities , 77

CHAPTER VI. Organology

The Cavities 79

The Cerebro-Spinal Cavity 79

TABLE OF CONTENTS XI

CHAPTER VII. Organology, — Continued : Page

The Thoracic Cavity 83

Larynx 84

The Trachea 85

The Plteurae 87

The Lungs 88

The Mediastinum 91

The Pericardium (Heart Sac) 92

The Heart 92

The Alimentary Canal 96

The Mouth 97

The Teeth 97

The Palate 97

The Salivary Glands * 98

The Pharynx 98

The Esophagus 99

The Diaphragm 99

CHAPTER VIII. Organology, — Continued

The Abdomen 101

The Stomach 103

The Small Intestines 106

Duodenum 107

Jejunum 107

Ileum 108

The Large Intestines 108

Caecum 109

The Colon Ill

The Rectum 112

Liver 112

The Gall Bladder 114

The Pancreas 115

The Spleen 116

The Kidneys 116

The Ureters 117

The Suprarenal Capsules 117

The Pelvic Cavity 118

The Bladder 118

The Uterus 118

Prostate, 119

The Peritoneum 120

Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX. The Vascular System: Page

The Blood Vascular System 123

The Systemic Circulation .- 125

The Arterial System 125

The Capillary Circulation 132

The Venous System 134

The Pulmonary Circulation 141

The Coronary Circulation 142

The Portal Circulation 144

The Foetal Circulation 144

The Collateral Circulation 147

The Lymphatic Circulation 147

CHAPTER XII. Changes in Blood after Death

Cooling of the Body 167

Cadaveric Lividity 168

Putrefactive Changes 169

Skin Slip : 175

Rigor Mortis 177

Fermentation and the Production of Gas 179

Spirituous Fermentation 180

Digestive Fermentation 180

Metabolic Fermentation 181

Putrefactive Fermentation 181

Abdominal Fermentation 182

Gastric Fermentation 184

Intestinal Fermentation 185

TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll

CHAPTER XIII. Discolorations : Page

Discolorations Occurring before Death 188

Yellow Jaundice 188

Pigmentary Atrophy 189

Cancerous Spots 190

Gangrene 191

Ecchymosis 191

Wounds . 193

Fractures 194

Scars and Tattoo Marks 194

CHAPTER XIV. Discolorations, — Continued

Discolorations Occurring after Death 196

Desiccation 196

Greenish Tinge of Putrefaction 200

Chemical Action 202

Postmortem Discoloration 203

Postmortem Staining 204 .

Capillary or Venous Congestion 204

CHAPTER XV. Making the First Call 205

The Position of the Body on the Embalming Board . . 210

Selection of an Artery 211

How to Raise an Artery 214

How to tell an Artery from a Vein or Nerve 215

How to Cut an Artery for Injection 216

The Injection of Fluid 218

Approved Disinfectants 221

Embalming Fluids 221

Wrapping a Bodv in Cotton 221

The Charge of Embalming 222

CHAPTER XVI. The Anatomical and Linear Guides for Special Arteries

How to Locate and Inject the Carotid Artery 225

How to Locate and Inject the Axillary Artery 231

How to Locate and Inject the Brachial Artery .... 234

How to Locate and Inject the Radial Artery 237

How to Locate and Inject the Ulnar Artery 240

How to Locate and Inject the Femoral Artery 241

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVII. Cavity Embalming: Page

The Cerebral Cavity 247

Purging 249

The Thoracic or Chest Cavity 252

The Abdominal Cavity 254

The Direct Incision 257

Embalming of the Subcutaneous Tissue 200

Plugging Orifices of the Body 262

Removal of Urine 263

CHAPTER XVIII. The Removal of Blood

The Removal of Blood 264

Right Auricle of Heart. — Direct Method £73

Right Ventricle of Heart.— Direct Method 274

Right Auricle of Heart. — Indirect Method '274

Femoral Vein -' 276

Axillary Vein 277

Basilic Vein 278

Internal Jugular Vein 279

CHAPTER XIX. Anthrax 285

Cerebro-Spinal Fever 286

Erysipelas 287

Glanders 288

Hydrophobia 289

Relapsing Fever 290

Syphilis 290

Tetanus 292

Actinomycosis 293

Dengue ; 294

Malarial Fever 295

Yellow Fever 296

Diptheria 297

Tuberculosis 298

Typhoid Fever 299

Leprosy 301

Influenza • • 301

TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

Treatment of Special Diseases, — Continued Page

Cholera 302

Bubonic Plague 303

Scarlet Fever 304

Variola 305

Measels 306

Parotitis 307

Pertussis 308

Typhus Fever 308

Varicella 309

Septicemia 310

Pyemia 311

CHAPTER XX. Treatment of Special Diseases, — -Continued

Diseases of the Respiratory System 312

Gangrene of the Lung 312

Pulmonary Hemorrhage 312

Pulmonary Abscess 314

Pneumonia , 314

Hydrothorax 317

CHAPTER XXL

Treatment of Special Diseases, — Continued:

Diseases of the Circulatory System 318

Pericarditis 318

Hydropericardium 318

- . Hemopericardium 319

Pneumo-Pericardium 319

Endocarditis 320

Aortic Incompetency 321

Aortic Stenosis 321

Mitral Incompetency 321

Mitral Stenosis 322

Tricuspid Incompetency 322

Tricuspid Stenosis 323

Pulmonary Incompetency 323

Pulmonary Stenosis 323

Cardiac Thrombosis 323

Hypertrophy of the Heart 324

Cardiac Dilatation 324

Cardiac Atrophy 324

Arterio Sclerosi? ... 325

i&i Fatty Degeneration of the Arteries 326

Aneurism 328

XVi TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXII. Treatment of Special Diseases. — Continued: Page

Diseases of the Digestive System 329

Jaundice 329

Cirrhosis of the Liver m 333

Carcinoma of the Liver '. 335

Appendicitis 336

Peritonitis 336

Dropsy 337

Ascites 337

Anasarca , 339

CHAPTER XXIII. Treatment of Accident Cases

Broken Neck 341

Hanging 341

Strangulation 341

Body Severed 342

The Arm Severed 343

The Leg Severed 344

The Head Severed 344

The Head Crushed ." 345

The Foot Crushed 345

The Chest Crushed 346

Gun-shot in the Abdomen 347

Burns and Scalds 347

CHAPTER XXIV. Treatment of Posted Cases

Cranial Evisceration 351

Thoracic Autopsy 351

Abdominal Post 351

Posted Cases 352

CHAPTER XXV. Alcoholism 354

Morphinism 356

Plumbism 356

Arsenicism 357

Mercurialism 357

Heat-Stroke 357

Obesity 358

Elephantiasis 359

Drowned Cases 359

Floater 359

Mother and Unborn Child 360

Senility 361

Gangrene 362

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

1. View of the skin 36

2. A cross section of the skin 37

3. Lymphatics of the head and neck , 45

4. Lymphatics of the leg 46

5. Cross section of the bone 50

6. Section of a nerve fiber 53

7. View of muscle fibers 54

8. Section of artery 58

9. Valves of the veins 60

10. Cross section through a small artery and vein 60

11. Human blood 61

12. The skeleton 69

13. The spine 71

14. The skull 73

15. Brain and spinal cord 80

16. Front view of the thorax 83

17. The cartilages of the larynx, the trachea and bronchi 86

18. The root of the left lung 89

19. A cross section of the heart showing valves 93

20. The right auricle and ventricle laid open 94

21. Passage into trachea and esophagus 98

22. The regions of the abdomen and their contents 102

23. The coeliac axis and its branches 104

24. The caecum and colon laid open to show the ileocaecal

valve 110

25. Excretory apparatus of the liver 114

26. The abdominal aorta and its branches 116

27. The peritoneum 120

28. The arch of the aorta and its branches 126

xvii xv111 list of illustrations

Page

29. The internal carotid and vertebral arteries 127

30. The circle of Willis 128

31. The arteries of the face and scalp 129

32. The external carotid and its branches 129

33. The anterior tibial artery 130

34. The popliteal, posterior tibial, and peroneal arteries . . 130

35. Capillaries 133

36. Superficial veins of the head and neck 135

37. The internal long saphenous vein 136

38. The superficial veins of the arm 137

39. Vertical section of the skull, showing the sinuses of

the duramater 138

40. The sinuses at the base of the skull 139

41. The azygos system and the venae cavae with branches 141

42. The front view of' the heart 143

43. The back view of the heart 143

44. Plan of the foetal circulation 145

45. Collateral anastomosis of veins 147

46. The arteries of the neck 226

47. The axillary artery and its branches 232

48. The brachial artery 235

49. The radial and ulnar arteries 240

50. The femoral artery 243

Chapter I. History Of Embalming

Guanch Embalming. — The Guanches with the Egyptians are the only nation among whom embalming had become national, and there exists in the process and mode of preservation of both such striking analogy, that the study of the Guanch mummies is, probably, the surest means of arriving at some positive notions of their origin and relationship. The details known of the mode of embalming among the Guanches will enlighten and complete the descriptions that ancient authors have left to us of the Egyptian processes. They were silent on desiccation in the act of mummification, but it is to be regarded as a simple omission on their part. This desiccation was continued during the seventy days of preparation, and it constituted the principle part of the process adopted.

The details that I am about to give are extracted from the work of M. Bory de Saint Vincent on the fortunate Isles.

"The arts of the Guanches were not numerous, the most singular without doubt is that of embalming. The

Guanches preserved the remains of their relations in a scrupulous manner and spared no pains to guarantee them from corruption. As a moral duty each individual prepared for himself the skins of goats, in which his remains could be enveloped, and which might serve him for sepulture. These skins were often divested of their hair, at other times they permitted it to remain, when they placed indifferently the hair side within or without. The processes to which they resorted to make perfect mummies, which they named xaxos, are nearly lost.

With the Guanches, the embalmers were abject beings; men and women filled this employment respectively, for their sexes; they were well paid, but their touch was considered contamination ; and all who were occupied in preparing the xaxos lived retired, solitary, and out of sight.

There were several kinds of embalming, and several different employments for those who had charge of it. When they had need of the services of the embalmers, they carried the body to them to be preserved, and immediately retired. If the body belonged to persons capable of bearing the expenses, they extended it at first on a stone table, the operator then made an opening in the lower part of the belly with a sharpened flint, wrought into the form of a knife and called tabona; the intestines were withdrawn, which other operators afterwards washed and cleaned; they also washed the rest of the body, and particularly the delicate parts, as the eyes, interior of the mouth, the ears, and the nails, with fresh water saturated with salt.

KISTORY OF EMBALMING 5

They filled the large cavities with aromatic plants; they then exposed the body to the hottest sun, or placed it in stoves, if the sun was not hot enough. During the exposition they frequently endued the body with an ointment, composed of goats' grease, powder of odoriferous plants, pine bark, resin, tar ponce stone, and other absorbing material.

On the fifteenth day the embalming should be completely terminated; the mummy should be dry and light; the relatives send for it and establish the most magnificent obsequies in their power. They sew up the body in several folds of skin, which they had prepared while living, and they bind it with straps.

The kings and the grandees were besides placed in a case or coffin of a single piece, and hollowed out of the trunk of a juniper tree, the wood of which was held as incorruptible.

They then finally carried the xaxos, thus sewed and encased, to inaccessible grottoes consecrated to this purpose.

Egyptian Embalming. — The Egyptians embalmed their dead, and the processes which they employed were sufficiently perfect to secure them an indefinite preservation. This is a fact which the pyramids, the cavern, and all the sepultures of Egypt offer us irrefragible proof. But what were the causes of the origin of this custom? We have in answer only hypothesis and conjecture. In the absence of valid documents, each one explains according to the bias of his mind, or the nature of his studies, a usage, the origin of which is lost in the night of time. One of the ancients informs us that the Egyptians took so much pains for the preservation of the body, believing that the soul inhabited it so long as it subsisted. Cassien, on the other hand, assures us that they invented this method because they were unable to bury their dead during the period of inundation. Herodotus, in his third book, observes, that embalming had for its object the securing of bodies from the voracity of animals ; they did not bury them, says he, for fear they would be eaten by worms, and they did not burn them, because they considered fire like a wild beast that devours everything it can seize upon. Filial piety and respect for the dead, according to Sicculus, were the sentiments which inspired the Egyptians with the idea of embalming the dead bodies. De Maillet, in his tenth letter upon Egypt, refers only to a religious motive as the origin of embalming: The priests and sages of Egypt taught their fellow citizens that, after a certain number of ages, which they made to amount to thirty or forty thousand years, and at which they fixed the epoch of the grand revolution when the earth would return to the point at which it commenced its existence, their souls would return to the same bodies which they formerly inhabited. But in order to arrive, after death, to this wished for resurrection, two things were absolutely necessary; first that the bodies should be absolutely carefully preserved from corruption, in order that the souls might re-inhabit them; secondly, that the penance submitted to during this long period of years, that the numerous sacrifices founded by the dead, or those offered to their names by their friends, or relation, should expiate the crimes they had committed during the time of their first inhabitation on earth.

With these conditions exactly observed, these souls separate from their bodies, should be permitted to reenter at the arrival of this grand revolution which they anticipated — remember all that had passed during their sojourn, and become immortal like themselves. They had further the same privilege of communicating this same happiness to the animals which they had cherished, provided that their bodies inclosed in the same tomb with themselves, were equally well preserved. It is in virtue of this belief that so many birds, cats, and other animals are found embalmed with almost the same care as the human bodies with which they have been deposited.

Such was the idea of perfect happiness which they hoped to enjoy in this new life. Surely superstition alone, it could scarcely be believed, would induce men to save from destruction the mortal spoils of individuals whom they had loved whilst living. We much prefer looking for the source of this usage in the sentiment which survives a cherished object snatched from affection by the hand of death. Since death levels all distinctions — respecting neither love nor friendship — since the dearest and most sacred ties are relentlessly broken asunder, it is the natural attribute of affection, to seek to avoid in some degree, a painful separation, by preserving the remains of those they loved and by whom they were beloved. This according to Saint Vincent. Volney and Paraset write as follows as to the probable cause of the origin of the custom: In a numerous population, under a burning climate, and the soil profoundly drenched during many months of the year, the rapid putrefaction of bodies, is a leaven for plague and disease. Stricken by these numerous pests, Egypt at an early day, struggled to obviate them; hence have arisen, on the one hand a custom of burying their dead at a distance from their habitations; and on the other an art so ingenious and simple to prevent putrefaction by embalming. One individual may be induced to embalm the bodies of his relatives and friends by motives of superstition; another from egotism and personal interest; a third from motives of salubrity or common interest; another is impelled to perform the sacred duty of preserving the remains of those who were dear to him by an instinctive affection. Caylus says that the Egyptians, according to appearances owe the idea of their mummies, to the dead bodies which they found buried in the burning sands which prevail in some parts of Egypt, and which, carried away by the winds, bury travelers and preserve their bodies, by consuming the fat and flesh without altering the skin.

The mourning, embalming and funerals were conducted as follows: When a man of consideration dies, all the women of his house, cover the head and even the face with mud; they leave the deceased in the house, girdle the middle of their bodies, bare the bosom, strike the breast, and overrun the city, accompanied by their relations. On the other side, the men also girdle themselves, and strike their breasts; after this ceremony they carry the body to the place where it is to be embalmed.

Certain men according to the law have charge of the embalming, and make a profession of it. When a body is brought to them, they show the bearers models of the dead in wood. The most renowned represents, they say,

Him whose name I am scrupulous to mention. This* model was probably the figure of some divinity. To be prepared after this model would cost one talent, (about nine hundred dollars of our money). They show a second which is inferior to the first, and which is not so costly, twenty mina, (or about three hundred dollars in our money). They also show a third of lower price, the price of which was considered by Herodotus as a trifle, which we would infer to mean from fifty to seventy-five dollars of our money. The exhibition of models on the part of the embalmers, had reference to the richness of the work demanded, and to the expense of the chosen form. They demand after which of the three models they wish the deceased to be embalmed. After agreeing about the price, the relatives retire ; the embalmers work alone and proceed as follows, in the most costly embalming.

They first withdraw the brain through the nostrils, in part with a curved iron instrument, and in part by means of drugs, which they introduce into the head. They now make an incision in the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone. The body is extended upon the earth, the scribe traces on the left flank the portion to be cut out. He who is charged with making the incision cuts with an Ethiopian stone, as much as the law allows; which, having done, he runs off with all his might, the assistants follow, throwing stones after him, loading him with imprecations, as if they wished to put upon him this crime. They regard, indeed, with horror, whoever does violence to a body of the same nature as their own. They withdraw the intestines through this opening, clean them, and pass them through palm wine, place them in a trunk; and among other things they do for the deceased, they take this trunk, and calling the sun to witness, one of the embalmers on the part of the dead, addresses that luminary in the following words, which Euphantus has translated: ''Sun and ye too, Gods, who have given life to men, receive me, and grant that I may live with the eternal Gods: I have persisted all my life in the worship of those Gods, whom I hold from my fathers, I have ever honoured the Author of my being, I have killed no one, I have committed no breach of trust, I have done no other evil: if I have been guilty of any other fault during life, it has not been on my own account, but for these things. ' ' The embalm er in finishing these words, shows the trunk containing the intestines, and afterwards casts it into the river. As to the rest of the body when it is pure they embalm it.

Afterwards they fill the body with pure bruised myrrh, with cannella and other perfumes, excepting incense, it is then sown up. When that is done they salt the body by covering it with natrum for seventy days. The natrum carries off and dries the oily, lymphatic, and greasy parts. After the seventy days the body is not permitted to remain longer in the salt. The seventy days elapsed, they wash the body and entirely envelope it in linen and cotton bandages, soaked with gum Arabic. The relatives now reclaim the body, they have made a wooden case for the human form, in which they enclose the corpse, and put it in a chamber destined for this purpose, standing erect against the wall. Such is the most magnificent method of embalming the dead.

HISTORY OF EMBALMING H

Those who wish to avoid the expense, choose this other method; they fill syringes with an unctious liquor which they obtain from the cedar, with this they inject the belly of the corpse without making any incision, and without withdrawing the intestines; when this liquor has been introduced into the cavity, they cork it; the body is then salted for the prescribed time. The last day they draw off from the body the injected liquor, it has such strength that it dissolves the ventricles and intestines, which come away with the liquid. The natrum destroys the flesh, and there remains of the body only the skin and the bones. This operation finished, they return the body without doing anything further to it.

The third kind of embalming is only for the poorer classes of society, they inject the body with a fluid called surmata, they put the body in natrum for seventy days, and they afterwards return it to those who brought it.

As to the ladies of quality, when they are dead, they are not immediately sent to the embalmers, any more than such as are beautiful or highly distinguished; they are reserved for three or four days after death. They take this precaution lest the embalmers might pollute the bodies confided to their care.

The relatives now fix the day for the obsequies in order that the judges, the relations, and the friends of the dead may be present, and they characterize it by saying that he is going to pass the lake; afterwards the judges, to the number of more than forty arriving, place themselves in the form of a semicircle beyond the lake. A» bateau approaches, carrying those who have charge of the ceremony, and in which is a sailor whom the

Egyptians name in their language, Charon. Before placing in the bateau the coffin containing the body of the deceased, it is lawful for each one present to accuse him. If they prove that he has led a sinful life, the judges condemn him, and he is excluded from the place of his sepulture, if it appear that he has been unjustly accused, they punish the accuser with severity. If no accuser presents himself or if the one who does so is known to be a calumniator, the relatives, putting aside the signs of their grief, deliver an eulogism, on the deceased without mentioning his birth, because they consider all Egyptians equally noble. They enlarge on the manner in which he has been schooled and instructed from his childhood; upon his piety, justice, temperance, and his other virtues since he attained manhood, and they pray the Gods of hell to admit him into the dwelling of the pious. The people applauded and glorified the dead who were to pass all eternity in the abodes of the happy. If any one has a monument destined for his sepulture, his body is there deposited; if he has none, they construct a room in his house, and place the bier upright against the most solid part of the wall. They place in their houses those to whom sepulture has not been awarded, either on account of crimes, of which they are accused, or on account of the debts which they may have contracted; and it happens sometimes in the end that they obtained honorable sepulture, their children or descendants becoming rich, pay their debts or absolve them. The Egyptian embalmers knew how to distinguish from the other viscera, the liver, the spleen, and the kidneys, which they did not disturb; they had discovered the means of withdrawing the brain from the interior of the body without destroying the bones of the cranium ; they knew the action of alkalies upon animal matter, since the time was strictly limited that the body could remain in contact with these substances; they were not ignorant of the property of balsams, and resins to protect the bodies from the larvae of insects and mites; they were likewise aware of the necessity of enveloping the dried and embalmed bodies, in order to protect them from the humidity, which would interfere with their preservation.

The preceding is a description of ancient Egyptian embalming as given by Herodotus, and has been the subject of numerous commentations, discussions and researches. It is almost a positive fact that Herodotus has omitted desiccation, and that it naturally took place during the time consecrated to preparation. From the mummies examined it is believed now that the body was first salted for seventy days, then dried, and that it was not until after this desiccation that the resinous and balsamic substances were applied. A simple inspection of the mummies is sufficient to confirm this opinion and besides what use would have been these resinous matters, with which the alkali of the natrum would soon form a soapy mass, which the lotions would have carried off, at least in great part? It is much more reasonable to suppose that these balsamic and resinous substances were not applied to the bodies until after they were withdrawn from the natrum.

All the ancients agree, in saying that the Egyptians made use of the various aromatics to embalm the dead; that they employed for the rich myrrh, aloes, canella, and cassia lignea; and for the poor, the cedria, bitumen, and natrum. The natrum was a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda. It was a fixed alkali, which acted after the manner of quicklime ; despoiling the bodies of their lymphatic, and greasy fluids, leaving only the fibrous and solid parts. The odoriferous resins and bitumen not only preserved from destruction, but also kept at a distance the worms and beetles which devour dead bodies.

The embalmers, after having washed the bodies with palm wine, and having filled them with odoriferous resins or bitumen, they place them in stoves, where by means of convenient heat these resinous substances united intimately with the bodies, and these arrive in a very little time to that state of perfect preservation which we find them at the present day. This operation of which no historian has spoken, was, without doubt, the principle and most important part of their embalming.