Rural hygiene, a hand-book of sanitation designed for the use of students in agricultural schools and colleges, and for the residents of the rural districts of the United States

Front matter

Book _

OopightN _i

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

Contents

CHAPTER PA.GB

Introduction 11

I. Work and Recreation 19

II

The experience of ages has taught the human race to build on elevated ground where the soil is comparatively dry. Generally sand or gravel is the best soil, w T hile clay is the worst.

The exposure of the building is of the greatest importance. In the cities buildings must be erected according to the direction of the street, and the owner can do nothing to improve the facing of his house. This is often true in the suburban districts, but there the owner frequently has sufficient ground to provide for a side entrance, in which case he can usually so place the house as to have the maximum exposure to the sun.

In the United States, dwellings usually face the south, but a southeastern exposure is preferable as the sunlight will then penetrate into each room at some time of the day. In this connection the prevailing winds must be considered, it being desirable to expose the building to the cooling winds of summer and at the same time have shelter from the storm winds of winter. Generally the southern or southwestern slope of a hill will afford all the protection desired. In flat country it may be necessary to plant pines or other evergreens as wind-breaks.

The outlook from the windows is not a matter of secondary consideration but one of considerable sanitary importance. Generally speaking, the rooms which are the most occupied should command the most pleasing view; especially is this important in the case of the dining-room. A dark, unattractive room that looks out upon another building or upon parched fields does not conduce to a cheerful meal and a good appetite.

Before the foundation is laid the ground to be occupied must be thoroughly drained to a depth of at least a foot below the floor of the cellar. This may be done by the use of openjoint tile drains or by trenches partially filled with broken stone and covered with earth. The water will run through the spaces between the stones, but the trench must empty at a level considerably below that of the cellar floor to prevent the water from backing up in the drains. There are some localities where it will be impossible to drain the ground under the house. There it becomes necessary to build upon piling.

The foundation is to be laid in concrete and the walls to the level of the ground are to be of brick or stone, which should be covered on the outside with pitch to the level of the ground. At this point there should be, in brick buildings, a layer of slate or other impervious substance to prevent the dampness from travelling up the wall.

Brick and stone are preferable for building materials, and in most parts of the country are as cheap as wood. Cement is becoming quite popular in some sections and it is claimed that a cement house can be built much cheaper than any other. If the building is of brick or sandstone it is often necessary to cover the outer wall with tar or other material to prevent dampness. Slate makes the best roofing, but it is more costly than shingles. Tin answers very well, but is hot in summer and does not last well. Shingles are cheap, but after a time have to be replaced, and where a cistern is used they often impart to the water an tinpleasant taste. Slate is the best roof from which to collect water for drinking. Eavestroughs must be provided to conduct the water from the roof away from the foundation.

The best floor for the cellar is concrete covered with cement. Rammed clay is not so good but will answer, as will also brick covered with tar. The object to be attained is the exclusion of moisture, the ground air, and rats. This portion of the house is often insufficiently lighted and ventilated, which in some cases may cause ill health. The same relative quantity of fresh air should be admitted to the cellar as is provided for the rest of the house, and at least two feet of each window should be above grade. The windows must be so arranged as to admit as much sunlight as possible. All openings about the water or other pipes must be made rat proof by being closed with cement.

The division of the house into rooms is to be left to the individual taste of those who are to occupy it. In general no room should be smaller than ten feet by ten feet, and there should be doors communicating with the adjoining rooms. The window space must not be less than one-fifth of the floor space.

For each adult a floor space of fifty square feet, and an air space of not less than six hundred cubic feet must be provided. Smaller rooms are harder to ventilate, and a greater height than ten feet adds to the cost without adding to the sanitary condition of the building. The ventilation is much better in rooms with windows extending to the ceiling. Where the exchange of air is through the windows all the space above the top of the window is practically useless as the air in that portion of the room is rarely changed.

VENTILATION

An abundance of fresh air is absolutely necessary for the health of the body. If we lived in the open air the question would be of very little interest, but, being inhabitants of buildings, it becomes one of the greatest importance ; so much so that there is a magazine published for the sole purpose of inducing people to be in the open air as much as they can, and, if this is impossible, to let as much air in the house as possible. The air that is expelled from the lungs contains many impurities derived from the body, the principal one being carbon dioxide, a gas which is found in small quantities in the atmosphere and which is one of the foods for vegetation. That the air in the house should be pure there must be a constant interchange between it and the outer air. This exchange is called ventilation.

As a result of many experiments it has been proven that for each adult there must be not less than six hundred cubic feet of air in the room, and that this must be changed at least five times an hour if the air is to remain pure. How to accomplish this without causing draughts or unnecessarily cooling the air in the room is far from a simple problem. Elaborate mechanical apparatus has been devised to provide ventilation for buildings, but as a rule the cost precludes its being adopted in private dwellings. For many years to come the majority of our people will ventilate their homes through the windows.

Air is like water in that there must be a place for it to overflow or flow out as well as an inlet. Many persons do not appreciate this and we find them endeavoring to ventilate through only one opening. Where the air space does not fall below the standard set above it is possible to obtain the required quantity of air by opening one window at the top and another at the bottom. These should be as far apart as possible. This method causes draughts, and many of our people prefer bad air to cold air or a draught. The draught, however, may be avoided by placing a board beneath the window that is open at the bottom. The air will then enter between the two sashes and be directed upward and diffuse itself through the room without inconvenience to the occupants. Open fires are credited with aiding ventilation very much and without doubt they do create a movement of air up the chimney, but most of the air is drawn from the lower levels and the foul air which rises to the ceiling is rarely disturbed. Where stoves are used an abundant supply of pure warm air can be had by enclosing the stove in a drum which connects with the open air through a shaft. The air is warmed as it passes through the drum and is diffused throughout the room. An outlet must be provided. Where the building is but one story high two air shafts may be extended downward from the roof into the room ; the outlet should terminate at the ceiling, but the inlet must extend several feet lower or it,

COLD AIR DUCT TO*-- / « ( CONNECT WITH OPENING/ ill IN OUTRIDE WALC^- Voah^r(

Fig. i. — Showing method of ventilating room heated by stove.

too, will become an outlet. These may open in the wall, but wherever they are a valve must be so constructed as to regulate the movement of the air.

The senses soon become accustomed to the air in which we are, even though it be much vitiated, therefore rooms which seem stuffy at first do not appear so after a while. To determine, the purity of the air elaborate instruments have been devised, but any one can form a pretty fair estimate of the quality of the air in a room by entering it directly from the fresh air or from a well -ventilated room. If the air contains less oxygen than normal it will seem stuffy.

HEATING

Closely associated with ventilation is the question of heating the house. The source of heat is governed by the fuel supply and the ability of the householder to install modern apparatus. The usual sources are open fires, stoves, furnaces, steam heaters, hot water, and gas or oil stoves.

Furnaces furnish a very dry heat that frequently has an unpleasant scorched odor from the burning of the organic matter in the air.

Z2

They aid the ventilation very much but in general they are not satisfactory for the reasons mentioned. Hot water and steam are more satisfactory, but the cost of installation is generally too great for most persons. For many years the country houses will be heated by stoves. These can be made satisfactory if properly handled. The old-fashioned Franklin heater is very satisfactory and a great saver of fuel. It has been adapted to burning coal. In the southwest the air-tight stove is much used. It is a wood burner and furnishes an abundance of heat with the minimum consumption of fuel. The fire is built of small wood which is allowed to burn to a red coal, larger sticks being then added and the stove closed up tight. Such a fire will keep all night and give out sufficient heat to warm a room. In the morning the opening of the draught causes the charred wood to blaze up.

Electricity will ultimately be the method by which we will heat our houses. It will cause a great saving of fuel and at the same time do away with many of the bugbears of the present methods.

Oil and gas stoves are objectionable because 3 33 they consume a large quantity of oxygen and at the same time generate a large quantity of carbon dioxide.

One of the most dangerous heaters is the red hot stove. It certainly causes much warmth, but at the same time carbon monoxide, an odorless but highly poisonous gas, is passing through the iron and polluting the air. This gas combines with some of the elements of the blood and causes serious illness when any considerable quantity is breathed.

LIGHTING

For a long time to come oil will furnish the illumination for the greater part of the residences of rural districts. It is important to use only the very best grades of oil, as the light is much better and at the same time the impurities given off are much less. The student's lamp furnishes a soft and pleasant light. The Rochester burners use a large quantity of oil and give a brilliant light, but it is glaring, and they also generate an immense amount of heat. A soft white light is the best for the eyes.

Where electricity can be had it is the most desirable light. The cost of installation will be considerable, but the saving in the light and the improvement in the air of the house will in time pay it back. The light can be tempered by the use of proper globes, and the eyes should be benefited by the use of electricity.

INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS OF THE HOUSE

The housekeeper in the rural districts is overworked, and for her sake, as well as for the health of those who live in the house, the ornamentation on doors, windows, and stairways should be reduced to the minimum. The door of the room in which this page is being written is made of fifty-three pieces. This door no doubt costs less than a solid one but it is anything but beautiful and has many cracks for the lodgement of dust and dirt.

The cracks in the floor may be filled with crack filler which will greatly reduce the quantity of dust in the house. Rugs are more easily cared for than carpets and are far more sanitary. Draperies are very unsanitary, especially when multiplied about windows and doors. Shades are needed to temper the light at times and to exclude the gaze of outsiders, but they should not be kept drawn all the time. Carpets and rugs will undoubtedly hold their color better in the dark, but the germs of tuberculosis and other diseases live much longer in dark rooms. The sun is, in fact, one of the most efficient disinfectants known. The question therefore resolves itself into color of carpets and rugs versus the health of the family and we of the jury decide in favor of good health.

The housewife has to make innumerable trips to the upper portion of the house and for her convenience alone, if for no other reason, the stairs should be low and devoid of the turns which are so frequently found in modern houses.

Bedrooms must be furnished as simply as possible yet with due consideration for the comfort of the occupants. Running water in the room is very convenient, but it is not desirable from the sanitary standpoint. It is important to have as much sunlight as possible in the room and the ventilation must be as good as possible. At night the windows should be wide open. The storm windows and doors found in our northern houses in winter are an abomination and should not be used unless absolutely necessary. The principal objection to having the window open at night is that in the morning the room is too cold for dressing. This can be obviated by using an adjoining apartment for a dressing-room. The more air in the sleepingroom the better. Many persons are now sleeping out of doors all the year round even in the severest of our northern winters, and there is no reason why healthy persons should not sleep with the windows wide open.

The bathroom should not be tucked away in an out-of-the-way corner, but must be convenient, large, well lighted and ventilated. Place the tub in the center of the floor so that there will be no place behind it that cannot be kept clean. There is no reason why it should not be built into the room so that there will be no space beneath it to collect dust. The discharge pipe can be run out at one end and thus all the requirements of exposed pipes will be met. Enamelled tubs only should be used.

Probably the most important room in the house from a sanitary point of view is the kitchen. It should be large and as conveniently arranged as possible, and where practicable there should be an adjoining room for a laundry. A sitting-room for servants will add greatly to their comfort, making them more contented. This is also important to the health of the family as it reduces the exposure of the food to a minimum number of persons. Have plenty of fresh air in the kitchen and provide an abundance of hot water, also, if possible, running water and a sink. Most kitchen sinks are provided with a grease trap which can be opened when it clogs up. Where this is not the case the pipe should be flushed daily with very hot water and lye.

The pantry must have sufficient shelving to hold the needed supplies and is to be made as near insect- and rat-proof as possible. In some houses the pantry is dark and poorly ventilated, the idea being that foods keep better in such rooms. This is far from the truth. Any articles that will spoil if exposed to the light should be kept in drawers or in jars with tight-fitting covers.

In the summer all the windows and doors throughout the house should be provided with wire screening of from eighteen to twenty meshes to the inch, so as to exclude mosquitoes and flies. Where there are no mosquitoes or any very small flies a larger mesh may be used and the cost will be reduced. Copper wire costs more than ordinary iron wire, but it lasts longer and is not so readily broken. If it is impossible to screen the entire house, the kitchen, pantry, and dining-room should be screened, for it is of the greatest importance to exclude flies from these rooms. When this is impossible wire dish covers may be used, but no food should be left uncovered where flies can get at it. There is little doubt that a large number of typhoid fever cases are contracted from eating food that has been contaminated by germs from the legs of the fly.

The foregoing description of a home is as we should like to have it, but the majority of our people do not build their own homes and must make use of the buildings that are on the farm. In such a case it is well to remember that the cardinal sanitary points about a house are freedom from dampness ; light and sunshine in every room ; large windows, sufficient air space, good ventilation, and sufficient heat. These should be had at any cost. The air space is generally insufficient, but that can be met by limiting the number of persons to the room. Sometimes several small rooms can be merged into one room, thereby improving the ventilation and reducing the cost of light and heat. Not infrequently the stairs are dark and without ventilation and this should be remedied by some means or other.

The all-important room is the kitchen. It must be kept free from flies and should not be the place for hanging the outer garments of the family. These are generally dusty and in some cases smell of the stable or soil. Running water is very desirable, and where it cannot be had provision must be made for an abundant supply from some other source. A large hotwater tank is a necessity.

The surroundings of a country house should be well kept, the garden being filled with ornamental shrubs and flowers. There should be no backyard littered up with cans, ashes, and other refuse, but there should be some portion of the grounds, close to the house set apart for the use of the children. There they should be allowed to dig and build to their heart's content. Encourage them to spend their time at home where they will be under the eyes of their elders and they will learn less that is undesirable. Their morals will be on a higher level and there will be fewer wild oats to harvest in later years. Children, however, should be taught the rudiments of sanitation at an early age, and should learn how to keep their playground free from cans, broken bottles, and other refuse. These things must be burned or buried. There is a great difference between the sanitary playground and the useless city park with its "keep off the grass" placards. Let us increase the former but diminish the latter.

III

In the "little red schoolhouse" many of our greatest men began and completed their school education, yet there can be no doubt that there were others who would have been great but for the limitations of the rural school. It is a sad fact that the instruction in many of our rural districts is far behind the times, that the school buildings are in many instances far from sanitary, and that the work imposed upon the teachers is greater than they can perform without losing their health. Our statesmen boast very much of our schools. We frequently hear it said that the "public schools are the bulwark of the nation " and yet the nation has done very little for the oublic schools.

TEACHERS

Most of the rural school teachers are women, many of them not physically fit for the task before them. Their pay is very inadequate and a disgrace to the nation. They receive less than the man who works with the pick and shovel, and very much less than the politicians who in many cases return little or nothing for the money paid them. Often the salary does not allow them to live properly. I know a young woman who teaches a lot of unruly negroes in a district school in the middle west for twenty-five dollars a month for ten months, in all two hundred and fifty dollars a year. Out of this she pays twenty a month for her board, or two hundred dollars a year, leaving but fifty dollars for clothing and for her support during the summer months. There are many worse cases than this. In some schools the teachers are paid less than the farm hands but are boarded around among the farmers.

The work of the rural teacher is harder than that of the city teacher. She is generally required to teach all grades, and not infrequently has to manage grown boys and unruly men. Overworked and underpaid, she cannot render the best service to the community.

If the rural communities cannot properly support their schools, and it seems that such is the case, then the State or Federal Government must do so. The States are limited in the amount of money they can raise by the direct tax, while the Federal Government, by indirect taxation, can raise an unlimited amount. There are many economies which the Federal Government can practice without in any way embarrassing its efficiency, and the farmer, who holds the balance of power, should see that they are made and the funds thus released used for the betterment of the rural schools.

The isolated country school can no longer furnish adequate accommodations for the children of the rural districts and in some of the States school districts are being consolidated in order to provide larger and more modern buildings and laboratories. This should not be done with an idea of economy but rather to obtain better instruction, to lighten the work of the teachers, and at the same time to pay them better. Where the consolidated district covers a large area it may be necessary to provide free transportation for those children who reside in the more remote parts of the area.

The ideal consolidated school will provide a suitable building for instruction and a home for the teachers. It will be surrounded by ample grounds which will include playgrounds and a flower garden tended by the children.

In some of the public schools hot lunches are being provided for the children. This is not so much needed in the rural schools, but there are without doubt many children who will be able to do better work during the afternoon session if they have a good meal at noon.

The view from the school should be as pleasing as possible. A north light is said to be the best for the eyes, but a south light is about as good, and besides allows the sunlight to penetrate the rooms, a much desired feature from a sanitary point of view. This exposure will generally be recommended. The exterior architecture should be rather plain but pleasing. The interior decorations are to be considered as one of the object lessons and should be in good taste but free from the* 'fancy work" which adds nothing to the beauty and only collects dust.

The tendency is to make the rooms too large and too high. Each pupil requires about twenty square feet of floor space and not less than two hundred and fifty cubic feet of air space. Oblong rooms are best suited to school purposes and those that are between thirty and forty feet in length are the most satisfactory. Thirteen feet is about the proper height. Increased height only adds to the cost of heating without adding to the comfort or efficiency of the pupils. The window area must not be less than one-fifth of the floor space. It is best to place the windows at the back and on one side, the object being to have the light come from the rear and over the left shoulder of the child. The sill of the window should be five feet from the floor and the window should extend to the ceiling no matter what the architects say about beauty. Inside blinds are needed to shut off the light when excessive. They should slide down into the space below the sill so as not to cut off the light on dark days. This space must be entirely open or it will accumulate dirt. Storm windows may be needed in very cold climates but they cut off much of the air required for the ventilation of the room. The furthest desk should not be more distant from the window than one and one-half times the height of the window.

The ventilation should be as perfect as possible, the aim being to keep the air as pure as that outside. It has been ascertained that not less than thirty cubic feet of fresh air must be furnished each pupil per minute if the air in the room is to be kept free from impurities. Where there is a mechanical ventilating system this will be comparatively easy to secure, but in most of the country schoolhouses no provision has been made for ventilation, and the only way to introduce fresh air and get rid of the bad is through the windows and the cracks about them and the doors. In such rooms the problem is very difficult because of the draughts which are created. The methods of ventilating buildings have been considered under housing, and as the methods of providing air for schools are the same the question will not be considered further in this place. During recess all the windows should be open and all children made to leave the room.

The heating is a matter of great importance. In the consolidated schools it will be possible to heat from a central plant in the basement and so dispense with the dust and dirt incident to stoves or fireplaces. For such plants steam or hot water will be found the most satisfactory. The heat from furnaces is too dry and often contains carbon monoxide, a most dangerous gas which is given off from red hot iron. There is a popular belief that steam- and hot waterheat are moist. This is not so, as none of the steam or the water comes in contact with the air of the room, the heat being radiated from the heated pipes.

The small country school will for many years be heated by a stove. To have this a success the teacher must give it constant supervision. It must never be allowed to become red hot, but must furnish sufficient heat without having any of the ventilating openings closed. Stoves require a large quantity of air, and where they are used some provision for extra air must be made. A good way is to enclose the stove in a sheet iron drum, leaving an air space of from six inches to a foot around the stove. The top of the drum is left open, while the bottom is connected with the open air by means of a flue, which must run as straight as possible. This flue should never be beneath the floor of the cellar, nor should it open on the level of the ground or where the air is befouled from any cause. Such stoves greatly aid in the ventilation of the room and furnish warm air without causing draughts. The flue will not work unless some outlet is provided for the foul air of the room. Some of this will pass out through the stove, but most of it must escape through the windows or through a shaft in the ceiling.

The blackboards are to be placed on the wall opposite the windows and are to be of a dull black color so as to diminish the reflection. They must not be further than thirty feet from the most distant seat. If kept very clean the writing will be more readily seen and the strain on the eyes will be much reduced.

It is generally recommended that the walls be neutral in color, but the greens and blues are most restful to the eyes. Painted walls are the most satisfactory, as they can be cleaned with soap and water.

It is not uncommon to find schoolhouses with such thin floors that the children's feet are always cold during the winter months. This undoubtedly accounts for some of the colds and catarrhs from which so many children suffer. Double floors are just as necessary in the school as in the home. All the cracks should be filled with crack filler, which will reduce the