Oral training lessons in natural science and general knowledge, embracing the subjects of astronomy, anatomy, physiology, chemistry, mathematical geography, natural philosophy, the arts, history, development of words, etc. ...

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THE IORIAN SERIES IN MODE RN LANGUAGE,

A Complete Course in German.

By JAMES H. WORMIAN, A.M.

EMBRACING

ELEMENTARY GERMAN GRAMMAR,

COMPLETE GERMAN" GRAMMAR, GERMAN READER,

GERMAN ECHO.

IN PEEPAEATION,

HISTORY OF GERMAN LITERATURE,

GERMAN AND ENGLISH LEXICON.

J. THIS GERMAN GRAMMARS of Worman are widely preferred on account of their clear, explicit method (on the conversation plan), introducing a system of analogy and comparison with the learners' own language and others commonly studied.

The arts of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, and of correct pronunciation, are treated wich great success.

The new classifications of nouns and of irregular verbs are of great value to the pupil. The use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes, is new. The Vocabulary is synoiiymical — also a new leature.

II. WORM AX'S GERM AX READER contains progressive selections from a wide range of the very best German authors, including three complete plays, which are usually purchased in separate form for advanced students who have completed the ordinary Header.

It has Biographies of eminent authors. Notes after the text, References to all German Grammars in common use, and an adequate Vocabulary ; also, Exercises for translation into the German.

III. WO R MAX'S GERM AX ECHO (Devtsches Echo) is entirely a new thing in this country. It presents familiar colloquial exercises without translation, and will teach fluent conversation in a few months of diligent study.

No other method will ever make the student at home in a foreign language. By this he thinks in, as well as speaks it. For the time being he is a German through and through. The laborious process of translating his thoughts no longer impedes free unembarrassed utterance.

WOMAN'S COMPLETE FRENCH COURSE

IS INAUGURATED BY

L'EOiiO ide :? .a. :el I s 3

Or, " French Echo ;" on a plan identical with the German Echo described above. This will be followed in due course by the other volumes of

THE FRENCH: SERIES, viz.: A COMPLETE GRAMMAR, .1.-1 FREXCH HEADER,

AX EIEMEXTA RY G RA MM A R,\ A F R E X C BZ LEXICON, A HISTORY OF FHEXCH LITERATURE,

WOEMAN'S WORK3

are adopted as fast as published by many of the best institutions of the country. In completeness, adaptation, and homogeneity for consistent courses of instruction, they

are simply

UNRIVALED.

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress

ORAL TRAINING LESSONS

IN

NATURAL SCIENCE

AND

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE,

EMBRACING THE SUBJECTS OP

ASTRONOMY, ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, CHEMISTRY, MATHE- MATICAL GEOGRAPHY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

THE ARTS, HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT OF WORDS, Etc.

INTENDED FOB

TEACHERS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS

AND ALSO

FOR PRIVATE INSTRUCTION.

BY H. BARNARD,

Principal Lincoln School, Minneapolis.

A. S. BARNES & COMPANY,

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by

A. S. BARNES & CO., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

n-iok\

Introductory and Explanatory.

It need hardly be 'stated that the Author's object in this work is to present a concise but comprehensive course in the most important Natural Sciences to those who have not the means of purchasing separate works upon each, and who may not have had the opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of them during their school-days.

But this is not the only object. The information is all arranged in the probable course that a lesson would take, were the teacher imparting it in the school-room.

Not only is the material furnished and arranged in this manner, but the process of developing new words and applying them has also received particular care and attention.

The mode of treating inattentive or idle pupils is also shown during the course of the lesson.

By a careful previous study of the lesson, any Teacher of ordinary ability may very successfully give either of the lessons of the course.

Perhaps none of the lessons will take the exact course here given. You must inevitably follow where the pupils' answers lead you ; but you must, at the same time, lead their thoughts in the general direction indicated.

The six prominent features of these lessons are :

i st. Elliptical Answers given by all in concert.

4 INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY.

2d. Individual Questions and Answers.

3d. Complete Statements by Individuals as the lesson progresses.

4th. Analogy and Familiar Illustrations.

5th. The writing of all new words on the blackboard, these words being in small capitals.

6th. A rapid general review at the close, with the object of putting the whole lesson in such a form as will connect all its parts so as to form a commencement and a termination.

The elliptical answers must never be a mere guess. Only one word should be able to supply the ellipsis. It should never be part of a word. Thus, instead of saying (see Lesson xxxviii.) " some bodies are simple and others are com . . . .pound" we rather say, "some bodies are simple and others are .... compound" If it is not entirely by the scholar's own exercise of thought, the object of the lesson is not attained; nor is it, if the answer is a mere guess.

At the word immediately preceding the ellipsis the rising inflection of voice should be used to indicate when you wish a word answered. In all individual questions require the hands to be raised by those who can answer, and call no one. Whenever a question is asked, no more than one should be allowed to speak ; but at, an elliptical answer, require every voice in the room to be heard.

Remember that the question pumps up the water from the well, but it requires the ellipitcal answering to lead it on in the proper direction.

All words in italics are pronounced by scholars ; those in ordinary letters or capitals are to be given by the Teacher.

Write all new words, or those in small capitals, on the black-board.

Never use a term that has not been well explained, and

INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 5

whose meaning is not clearly comprehended by the pupil. Anglo-Saxon words are always the best.

Never do injury to the sensitive feelings of the pupil by saying, " No ; You are wrong," but train him, unconsciously, by the natural process, to that which is correct.

This fact deserves prominence : A lesson is never given till it is RECEIVED.

Be careful, as each point is gained in the lesson, to require some one, or all, to give the full and complete statement in its simplest form, before going on to the next point. This should be done at the end of each paragraph, at least. These statements are omitted in nearly all the lessons given in this volume, as it would make the work unnecessarily voluminous. A sufficient number of examples will be found throughout the course to indicate the manner in which it is done.

When any considerable number of scholars fail to do this, cause them to quietly take out their slates and write it from the dictation to some attentive scholar. The younger the scholar who dictates it, the better the effect. Then cause them to read it from their slates, and afterwards to state it, as required at first.

It is always preferable to have one point of the lesson well understood than to go over the ground of a whole lesson without any distinct idea of the several steps contained in it. Quality first ; Quantity afterwards.

Each pupil should also, at the close of a lesson, be able to make all the statements contained in it successively.

As often as once each week, the material contained in some previous lesson should be made the subject of a composition to be written by all. This will be found a most profitable and interesting work. Let them introduce all other facts or conclusions connected with their subject.

6 INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY.

NORMAL SCHOOLS

Are now being established in every part of the United States and the British Dominions for the express purpose of creating good Teachers from good Scholars. Teaching, being an Art, as well as Carpentering, Weaving, Mining or Agriculture, requires a preparatory apprenticeship. If the present work gives even a very limited assistance to the work of furnishing the Teacher with the material and the manner of imparting, the Author will consider that his efforts are not without success.

Not an unimportant part of its mission wilL be its use at the family fireside. One may be selected to act as Teacher, and conduct the lesson with the other members of the family as pupils. This will be found a most gratifying and instructive employment during otherwise unoccupied time.

The work, however, is designed particularly for public schools. The lessons may be conducted with all the scholars together, which is preferable, or with a large class composed of all who are capable of answering.

CONTENTS,

LESSON PAGE

I. Natural Science — Climate : Its Elements 9

II. Natural History— Habits of the Cat 12

III. Form of the Earth — Proof by Circumnavigation 14

IV. Physiology — Organs and Functions 17

V. Natural Science — Heat and its Effects 20

VI. Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 22

VII. Astronomy — Motions of the Earth 25

VIII. Physiology — The Five Senses 28

IX. Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 30

X. Natural Science — The three forms of Matter 32

XI. Chemistry — Composition of the Air 35

XII. Mental Science — Memory 38

XIII. Etymology — Derivation : Words from Traho 40

XIV. Natural Science — Sources of Heat 43

XV. Physiology — The Nerves 46

XVI. Mathematical Geography— Lines on the Earth's Surface 49

XVII. Natural Science — Climate: Its Causes 52

XVIII. Anatomy — The Osseous System 54

XIX. Natural Science — Organic and Inorganic Bodies 57

XX. Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 60

XXI. Chemistry — Oxygen: Flame 63

XXII. Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 66

XXIII. Natural Science — Evaporation of Water 68

XXIV. Astronomy — The Solar System 71

XXV. Natural Science— Wind 75

XXVI. Physiology — Respiration 76

XXVII. Natural Science — Transmission of Heat 79

XXVIII. Astronomy — The Solar System 82

XXIX. Natural Science — Light: Its Nature and Sources 84

XXX. Natural Science — Sound 86

XXXI. Etymology — Derivation : Words from Plico 89

XXXII. Difference between Science and Art 91

XXXII I. Natural Science — Mechanical Properties of Atmosphere 93

XXXIV. Luxuries and Necessaries of Life ' 96

8 CONTENTS.

LESSON PAGE

XXXV. Natural History— The Camel 98

XXXVI. Natural Science— Why do Iron Ships Float ? : 100

XXXVI I. Astronomy — Attraction of Gravitation 102

XXXVIII. Chemistry — Simple and Compound Bodies 105

XXXIX. Natural Science— Inertia 108

XL. Human Anatomy — Arteries of the Body no

XLI. The Arts— Weaving X13

XLII. History — Career of Napoleon 116

XLIII. Chemistry — Acids, Bases, and Salts. 1:9

XLI V. History — Five Great Nations of Antiquity 121

XL V. Manufactures — Brocaded Silk : Jacquard Loom 123

XLVI. Astronomy — The Solar System: Asteroids: Orbits 125

XLVII. The Arts — Reduction of Metals from their Ores 128

XLVIII. Natural Science— Trade Winds 130

XLIX. Chemistry — Generation of Carbonic Acid 132

L. Natural Science — Light and Heat: Refraction, Reflection, and

Absorption 134 p ral Training Lessons.

LESSON I.

NATURAL SCIENCE. CLIMATE : ITS ELEMENTS.

Raise hands all who can tell me what is meant by Climate. Does no one know ? We will see.

In countries where the sun shines perpendicularly, that

is, directly over head, we say that they have a very

hot .... climate. Then when we speak about climate, we mean the .... heat, or ... . cold. Now raise hands those who know a word that means heat or cold. When we speak of the heat or cold of the air, for example, what word is generally used ? George ? . . . . Temperature. That is correct. Let me hear this word from all ... . Temperature. Again .... Temperature. The temperature of the air, then,

means whether it is hot or cold. Annie, repeat that

sentence. (She repeats. If she cannot, from inattention, cause her to leave her seat and write it on the slate two or three times after asking some one else.) Eddie, if I speak of the temperature of the water in the river, to what do I refer ? . . . . You mean whether it is hot or cold. Correct.

Now, when the air is very hot, the temperature is said to be very . . . . ? I will tell you. It is said to be very high. When the air has a high temperature then you mean that it is very .... hot. What would it mean to say it is very

low? Hands up. Willie ? Very cold. Make the

whole statement By a low temperature we mean that it

is very cold. Very well, indeed. You would say, for instance, that ice has a very low temperature, and that red hot

IO ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. [Lesson i.

iron has .... a very high temperature. What would you say of the temperature of melted lead ? Hands up. Fred ?

Melted lead has a very high temperature. When you

speak of climate, then, one thing that you mean is the .... temperature, that is ... . the heat or cold.

Now, does it mean anything else ? Suppose that it

seldom rained, what then ? It would be a dry climate.

Yes, and climate will also mean whether it is dry or

wet. I also wish you to give me one word for this. Hands up. What, none ? The word I wanted was moisture. All repeat together .... moisture. Here, then, are two things.

They are temperature and moisture, which form the

.... climate, of any .... country.

There is something else meant when we speak of climate besides .... temperature and moisture. What is it ? Did you ever hear of a windy climate, or a stormy climate ? . . . . Yes, sir. Then the third thing in the climate of a country is ... . the wind. We will call it prevailing winds. All

answer prevailing winds. Libbie, will you give us

these three things ? . . . . Temperature, moisture and ' prevaili?ig winds. What about them ? . . . . They form the climate of a country. Then you make the complete statement, Charlie. (He makes it.)

Now, in the next place, since these things make up a climate, they may be called its .... ? Well, let us sec. The

sounds that compose a word are called its elements.

Correct, and those things that compose a loaf of bread could be called its ... . elements. What are the elements of bread ? Alice ? . . . . Flour, water, salt and yeast. Raise hands all who can give me the elements of mortar. Frank ? .... Lime, water, sand and hair. Of this book, Cora ? .... Paper, ink, cloth and leather. And raise hands all who can tell me the elements of climate. You may tell me,

George Temperature, moisture and prevailing winds.

And the elements are those things of which anything is

.... made up, or composed. Before going on to the

next point we will revise what we have said. The climate of a ... . country, consists of, ist, . . . . temperature, which means the .... heat or cold. 2d, ... . moisture, or whether it is ... . wet or dry ; and 3d, . . . . prevailing winds. When

Lesson i.] ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. II

it is cold the temperature is said to be ... . lota, and when

hot it is said to be high. Sam, give me an example

of this .... Ice has a low temperature and steam has a high temperature. Yes, but you might have omitted the first word temperature. Repeat without using it. (He repeats.)

Now a country which is not too warm in summer nor too cold in winter, has what kind of a climate ? Temperate. (If not known, carefully tell it.) A temperate .... climate, means one that is neither . ... too hot nor too cold. Kate, repeat that. (She repeats.) But when it is very cold in winter and very hot in summer, the climate is said to be .... ? I will tell you, if all listen attentively. It is said to be extreme. All repeat. It is said to be ... . extreme. Again .... extreme. What does an extreme climate mean ? Fannie ? . . . . One that is either too hot or too

cold. Yes, but I want the complete statement An

extreme climate is one that is either too hot or too cold. A temperate climate that is not too wet and stormy is also called salubrious. All repeat .... salubrious. This word

means several things. When we say a climate is

salubrious, we mean that it is neither too hot nor too

cold, which in one word would be ... . tetnperate, and that it is not too .... wet and stormy. It might not even rain very much, but if it was foggy and damp would it be salubrious ? No, sir. Raise hands all who can give me

another word like salubrious ? I will give you one. Genial. All answer .... genial. A genial or ... . salubrious climate,

is one that is in every way fine, or agreeable.

Fred, repeat that last sentence. (He repeats.)

Now all answer promptly. By the climate we mean three .... things, ist, . . . . temperature, or the heat or ... . cold, 2d, ... . moisture, or the state of being wet or ... . dry, and 3d, . . . . prevailing winds. Then the temperature may be ... . high (gesture in a case like this), or ... . low, which would mean .... hot or cold. Since these three things make up, or ... . compose, climate, they may be called its ... . elements,

When a climate is too hot or too cold, it is said to be

.... extreme, but if not, it is ... . temperate. If it is temperate and also not too stormy or moist, you would say it was .... salubrious, or genial. Or even if it has

12 ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. [Lesson 11.

extremes, if it is conducive to good health we speak of it as salubrious and genial.

LESSON II.

Adapted to Young Scholars.

NATURAL HISTORY : HABITS OF THE CAT.

Now all sit upright and attend. When you are looking

and listening then you are attending. All answer

promptly.

All animals do not live in the same .... way. A horse does not get its food as a dog does, and a hen and a duck do not both live in the same .... place, or ... . manner. But every animal is exactly fitted by the Creator for its way of ... . living. Willie, repeat that .... Every animal is exactly fitted by the Creator for its way of living.

Now all may raise hands who can give me a better word than fitted. Lizzie ?..... formed. Very good. I now want another. Hands up. George ? . . . . arranged. Yes, another ; Frank ? . . . .fixed. Yes, all these words would do. We will repeat them in order. Every .... animal, is exactly .... fitted, or ... . formed, or ... . arranged, or ... . fixed, for its way of living. But I will tell you a better word. It is adapted. All pronounce it together .... adapted. We will use this word through the lesson. All animals are exactly .... adapted, to their way of ... . living. You may all now try and think of one word that means ways of living or doing anything. Can you not think of such a word ? Let us try if we can find one. A boy who comes in late to school every day, we say, has formed a

very bad habit. And a dog that barks at every one

who passes has also formed a very .... bad habit. A boy who tells untruths has an exceedingly.. . . . bad habit. Now we will use this word instead of ways of living. Every .... animal, is exactly .... adapted, to its ... . habits. All who can repeat it, raise hands. (All should be able to, if

Lesson ii.] ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. 1 3

you have successfully given the lesson so far.) Jane ? . . . . Every animal is exactly adapted to its habits. Correct.

We are to speak to-day of the habits of the cat. What does the cat eat ? Hands up. Annie ? . . . Mice. Susan ? .... Birds. William ? . . . . Weasels and squirrels. John ? .... Bats. That will do. We may say all kinds of small .... animals. They are her food. There is a better word

than food. You may all give it if you can prey.

That is right. (If they do not know it, tell it.) Would you call a sheep's food its prey ? . . . . No, sir. But a cat's food is called its ... . prey. And you say that her prey consists

of all kinds of small animals. These animals are

very quick, and the least noise would . . . .frighten them away. And such animals as mice generally come out of their nests in the night, or in a dark cellar or closet. What do you think the cat will require first of all, if she has to catch her prey in the dark ? Hattie ? . . . . She will require good eyes. Very well answered. She must have good, sharp .... eyes, so as to be able to see even where it is ... . dark. Willie, repeat that. (He repeats.) Now all together again. All animals are found to be exactly .... adapted, to their .... habits. The cat, having to catch her .... prey, in the .... dark, must be adapted to that, and must therefore have good .... eyesight. Must she have anything else that you can think of ? Jennie ? . . . . She must be able to run. Well, I do not know whether that will be very necessary or not. Listen to me. Would a sheep's feet do for a cat even if she could run fast ? . . . . No, sir. I think not. She must have very .... soft feet, so that when she

walks (accompany these ellipses by gestures,) she

may make no ... . noise. For if she made as much noise as a sheep she would .... frighten the birds or mice. We have now found two things that she must have. Fred ?

.... Sharp eyes. Next ? Soft feet. Who will state

this ? Willard ? . . . . The cat must have sharp eyes and soft feet. Good.

Now we will try again. She creeps up very softly as near as she can get to a ... . bird, or a ... . mouse, and then she crouches down and waits till it hops a little .... nearer, and while it is not looking she makes a great .... spring,

14 ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. [Lesson in.

or leap, and jumps right upon it. But if she had

sheep's feet, what then ? . . . . She could not catch the mouse.

Another word for catch. She could not seize the

mouse. In order to enable her to seize it, she must have sharp .... claws, upon her .... feet. But if you look at a cat's paw you see no claws. How is this ? A sword is kept in a ... . case, or ... . sheath. And if a cat's claws are to be kept .... sharp, they must also be put into .... cases. Are they ? . . . . Yes, sir. And if we just pull one

of her whiskers, we see all her claws, displayed at

once. Then her claws are kept sharp by means of ... . sheaths, or ... . cases, between the cushions of her .... feet. These cushions are under her .... feet, so that she may make no ... . noise, when she .... walks near a mouse.

In the next place, after she has caught her .... prey, she must have proper teeth so as to be able to ... . tear it. Teeth like a sheep's would not do for the .... cat. Her teeth must be very .... sharp.

Now all answer. In order that the cat may be

adapted, to her .... habits, or ... . way of living, she must be provided with, ist, . . . . good eyes ; 2d, .... soft feet ; 3d, .... sharp claws, to hold or ... . seize her prey ; 4th, to keep her claws sharp, her feet must have .... cases, or . . . . sheaths ; 5th, she must have good sharp .... teeth, in order to ... . tear her food.

LESSON III.

THE FORM OF THE EARTH : PROOF BY CIRCUMNAVIGATION.

We are to speak to-day of the Form or Shape of the Earth. How many know its shape ? I see several hands up. Willie? .... Round. Round like a cent ? . . . . No, sir ; round like a ball. Round like a stove pipe ? . . . . No, sir ; round like a ball. A ball is also called a . . . . globe. What word will mean " like a globe ? " George ? globular.

Lesson in.] ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. 1 5

Right. I will write this word on the blackboard. All

answer globular. This word means .... like a globe.

There is another word which means like a sphere. What is it ? . . . . spherical. The earth then is round .... like a ball, or globular, or ... . spherical. Now do you believe this ? If you go outside and look, can you see that it is round ? . . . . No, sir ; it is fiat. This boy thinks the earth is flat. Does any one else think so. No one ? Then

you think it is globular. Why ? Have you any

reason ? What good is there in telling me it is round or globular, if you cannot prove it. This boy who said flat, answered as he naturally believed it is. And for thousands of years people lived and died without knowing any better than this. A long time ago it was thought to be as it looks, that is ... . flat. And boys and girls often asked their parents how far they could . ... go, before arriving at " the end of the earth." They felt curious to know if there was any place, away off, where you could "jump off, " — a regular "jumping-off place." And then some very inquisitive boy like Sam here, would ask what it rested on, or what it was built upon. But their parents could not tell anything about these things. Well, Sam, I see your hand up ? . . . . What does the earth rest on ? We will see presently. Don't be too much in a hurry. Some wise philosophers taught people that the earth was built on four great pillars. Others that it was carried on the back or shoulders of a god whose name they called Atlas. All repeat this name .... Atlas. Then others said the land was like a great raft, and floated upon the .... water.

Well, Charlie, what is it? ... . What did they think the pillars 7-estcd on, or the god, Atlas, or the water ? (If such a question is not asked, you ask it.) Oh ! that was the great question which they could never .... anszver. We have just said that the earth was not flat at all, but ....

round like a ball, or globular, or spherical. I

heard some girl say sperical ; all answer it correctly .... spherical. Now I am going to tell you how we know this. (Use the map of Hemispheres or a globe here.)

In order to go to India, the people of Europe had to sail .... round the continent of Africa, or round the .... Cape l6 ORAL TRAINING LESSONS. [Lesson m.

of Good Hope, and then across the Indian Ocean.

But about four hundred years ago, all repeat, about .... four hundred years ago, a man named Columbus, who lived in a city of Europe called Genoa, thought that he could get to India in another way in a ship. This man's name was .... Columbus ; he lived in ... . Genoa, about .... four hundred years ago. What did I say about him, Lizzie ? . . . . He thought he could get to India in another way in a ship. Yes, Columbus believed that the earth was round like a ball, or ... . globular, or ... . spherical. Very few others believed this. No one in Genoa believed it.