"American forests."

Preface

A conntry without a tree on her face, Is to be compared to an empty space.

Their alarming disappearance and the fact that they are mostly given up to unscientific management convinces the author of this treatise of the fate, which sooner or later, must befall our once so magnificient primeval forests and urges him with earnest desire to do his part towards preventing the approaching calamity.

Seventeen years ago he sent a memorial to Congress, calling attention to the importance of forests and the necessity that the government should take the subject in hand and prevent their wanton destruction, and although his efforts were unavailing, also his lectures upon the same subject in after years, he still adhears to his ideas and is convinced that it is the duty of every citizen to pay more attention to a subject, the importance of which has been up to the present time so inexcusably neglected.

The author of this book understands the management and culture of forests, as he has received a thorough education thereof in one of the best academies of forestry in Germany, and added to this a vast amount of practical knowledge during many years of actual service. Thousands of trees which have been planted under his direct supervision bear testimony that the task of replacing partly destroyed forests can be successfully accomplished. The condition and management of our old forests must implore every citizen that under the present system their existence is endangered, since their mission is unappreciated, and their usefulness and absolute necessity unacknowledged. But the time is coming when the consequences of the present management -will be apparent to all, and the punishment merited for their ruthless destruction be meted out. Then the proverb, "Want and necessity generally grade the road for the better" is verified, as then the teachings in regard to their value will receive the attention of all; but then it will be too late! Nature will not change her laws. The same consequences which accrued after the destruction of forests in other countries must follow in our own. This is a lesson for us. As a people it behooves us then to examine the matter thoroughly, to acquaint ourselves with the true condition of our forests and learn their sufficiency and deficiency for present and future demands.

In the following pages the author endeavors to publish such facts, make explanations and lay down such rules as he considers most essential for a better system of management, and which shall lead to a more thorough appreciation of the benefits of forests, and he cherishes the hope that everybody who loves his country may, while reading this treatise, have a due appreciation of the writers earnest desire and efforts to serve the country.

Any informatian upon the subject will be cheerfully given, and corrections and additional facts for the following editions thankfully received by

THE AUTHOR.

INTRODUCTORY.

Agriculture*, horticulture and arboriculture are all parts of one great . hole, namely : cultivation of the soil, and its various productions upon which the prosperity and existence of mankind depends.

Agriculture leads the van of this three-fold group, being the funda- ' mental element of wealth and national advancement. Fertility of soil, variety of climate and wise selection of grains and plants, combined with energy, enterprise, skill and industry on the part of the inhabitants are sure guaranty of the prosperity of any country.

The farmer limits his efforts to the cultivation of those crops which are the best adapted to the soil and climate of his region. The gardener must know the entire list of vegetables, fruits and flowers without reference to latitude or longitude, and consequently their growing and cultivation must be more or less scientific. The attempt of scientific development oi the husbandmans art in many of its branches dates back only half a century. Previous, both agriculture and horticulture have been conducted upon the "Virgillian System;" adherence to blind custom rather than by intelligent investigation and judicious experiments.

The first book in the English language which treats of the relations oi agriculture and chemistry was published in 1795, and its teachings, though containing some truths, are absurd when viewed in the light of present attainments. No accurate analysis of vegetable life and structural developments was made until the year 1810, and as late as 1838 the Goettingen Academy offered a prize for a satisfactory answer to the question, "Whether the ingredients found in the ashes of vegetables are essential to growth." The last half century has placed agriculture upon a true scientific basis, and since then the advance has been simply wonderful.

But it is a startling fact that one of the most essential factors in securing these achievements has been almost, if not wholly ignored. Science, 60 active ana aggressive in particular directions, turned its face from one that would lead it to most valuable results.

The question as to what effect the forests have upon the cultivation o.t soil, the quantity and quality of its products, and upon the health and comforts of the inhabitants is scarcely suspected.

The Bureau of Agriculture at Washington has made some efforts in the direction of preserving the present area and extending the forest culture. The secretary of Interior has attempted to prevent the wanton destruction of growing timber on the public domain, and uiged new settlers upon the open prairie to plant trees. But all this was more of an experiment, empirically, that is, not scientifically, with only incidental, one might say, accidental reference to the well known and established laws of nature.

The time has certainly arrived for full and intelligent consideration of this subject, and if the eyes of the nation are opened to its vital importance, the people will demand proper attention to it, as it is a well established faet that the forests of a country should cover from one quarter to one third of its whole area, if that country shall be healthful and its climate salubrious, fulfilling all the conditions under which agriculture maybe successful. The extent, location and distribution of forests must also be taken in careful consideration. Every state and territory, every county and township should have its due proportion, if the utmost benefit to the entire nation is intended. In this we are all interested, as money can build and beautify a castle but cannot create a grand and majestic tree.

In Europe this has become of such importance that the governments have assumed control of the forests and established special bureaus in charge of competent officers, who after long and thorough apprenticeship, have graduated in the science of forestry. Thereby the forests lu.ve been made the means of promoting the health and fertility of the country, and a source of increased revenue to the government. The United States needs similar legislation. An intelligent oversight and authoratitive control by competent men may secure us the benefits to be derived from a proper management of the timber, yet within the control of the government.

Equal causes produce equal results or equal consequences.

This is the undisputable law of nature, approved in all ages and shown by the history of every nation as well as every individual. The statesman therefore, as well as the political economist, in fact every wise and intellectual business man, bases his calculations upon the truth of the above law. It is therefore a wise practice and policy to consult in new undertakings, those who perfectly understand the subject and be guided by their advice, especially in the culture of trees.

The population of the United States have so far enjoyed, even if not generally appreciated, such a surplus and abundance of forests and their products, that a thoughtless and reckless destruction of them has by no means and under no circumstances been considered rts anything improper.

Farsighted men have formed the "American Forestry Congress" and every citizen who has the welfare and p osperity of the country at heart should thank that body for their laborious task, viz : "That the care of the forests of the country should be placed in the hands of the government, and where practicable, in the hands of the state governments, so that their total destruction and thereby the diminishing of agriculture, health and commerce may be prevented."

Let us not think that the country has a sufficient area stocked with forest trees, but let us remember the time needed for their development and also follow the rule by which Europe is guided : "That a careless treatment of the forests can lead in a few years to such a condition of the same, .hat the best forester cannot relieve them during a century."

AMERICAN FORESTS.

Chapter I. Consequences Op Deforesting

The dangers arising from destruction of forests are not exaggerated, if compared with the descriptions of ancient historians and the researches of travelers of a later date.

Robin, Peron, La Perouse and others have graphically described the fearful consequences which have followed such wholesale destructions on the Island of Trinidad, Martinigue, St. Domingo, Mauritius and other places. Instead of the luxurious vegetation which once abounded, resulting from the warm, moist and voluptuous climate, are now only seen naked recks and bare hills. The dewdrops, fogs and refreshing showers have given place to hurricanes and cyclones. •

Phcenicea and other provinces of Asia and Africa, once the graneries of Europe and inhabited by a prosperous and happy population, are now little more than arid deserts. Their glory has departed together with their forests. Chouseul Goufher vainly searched the dominion of ancient Troy for the Scamander River; its bed had dried up after destruction of forests.

With the diminishing of forests in Spain, the water supply has been reduced, while in Italy the climate has become colder.

Australia furnishes another example and the Government, recognizing the cause, is taking steps to apply a remedy by tree planting.

The valley of the Durance, in the southern part of France, is endangered of becoming a stonefield for the same reason ; the growth of Olives and Grapevines being retarded for want of shelter and moisture.

In Iceland agriculture was no longer successful after the departure of forests and the steppes of Russia, which were formerly fertile, are now deserts.

But on the other hand the cultivation of trees in Scotland, France and other countries plainly shows the great blessings which forests are.

Egvpt has a perceptible increase of rainfall, since trees have been planted on a large scale. Those facts need no comment and all arguments to

the contrary must faili

Chapter II. Causes Op The Decrease Op Our Forests

WHAT CAUSES REDUCED OUR PRIMEVAL FORESTS TO THEIR PRES- ENT NARROW LIMITS.

Ignorance, carlessness, selfishness and the idea that so vast a forest area could ever be exhausted or perceptibly diminished in size, have been the main causes of their destruction.

The weapons used have been the axe of the woodman and fire; especially the latter, as the work of the former, was, formerly hardly visible. The savage Indian done his part toward the burning of forests; he started the fire carlessly, and at other times to drive the game from certain wooded districts. Control over the elements having been entirely lost, va.sl areas have been swept away, filling even the souls ot the savages with terror. Laterly, the squatter has set fires in order to clear tracts of land foT agricultural purposes and as the soil has not yielded the expected returns; he left.

The lawful settler imitated the squatter in order to dispose of a superabundance of wood.

As immigration has increased from year to year, the war against the. forests has been continued in a degree proportionate to the growth of tho population. The gigantic old trees are gone, after having withstood the winds and storms of centuries.

If this clearing had been conducted with wise and correct principles, it would have been perfectly proper, as it was necessary to make place for farms and the building of towns and cities. But if some tracts of forrests had been spared, what a blessing they would be to those who are now settling upon the naked prairie. Cities and towns have arisen from the ashes of the forests, great industries have been developed, the demand for wood has increased in all directions, and it has been taken, wherever most plentiful and easily to be obtained.

The late war caused terrible havoc among the forests, as in many parts of the country they were cut down by the armies to prevent the possibility of surprise by the enemy, and fires were set to cover the rear of retreating enemies and to serve as obstacles to the pursuing troops, and great fires like those at Chicago and Boston, have destroyed whole townships of forrest.

But let the causes of destruction be what they may, it is an undisputed fact that they were made in many cases on a basis altogether too broad, and that the prosperity of many states is on that account lessened. Trees grow very slowly and if cut too rapid their number will be gradually diminished, and they must finally disappear altogether, wherever this process is continued. If left to the sole care of nature for a period of one thousand years, she would in that length of time hardly be able to erase the footprints of human's attack by replacing the forests to their original condition.

The government still holds in possession extensive tracts of land which are mainly covered by forests, but to expect that the whole country could be supplied with wood from those alone is an illusion, the fallacy of which it would not take long to prove.

Upon the farmer and land owner rests the necessity and duty for the planting of trees and the renewing of forests, by devoting a certain portion of land to their culture. It is the duty of the government, as well as of state governments, to support the farmer in this undertaking in every possible way, and protect him by wise and effective laws and by actual assistance, such as instructing him in forest culture, exempting Ins forest land from taxation and by the most stringent laws in regard to prairie and forest fires. A beginning in this direction has been made, even if only upon a small scale, by different states, and their good example should be followed by all states and the government.

Chapter III. Forests Jn Their Present And Future State

In chapter I are shown the benefits derived from forests and also the consequences which have followed their destruction or even the rendering of their extent too small as compared with the area of a country. What an erroneous idea predominates in regard to the extent and inexhaustability of the forests of this country, will now be considered and for a more correct understanding of the subject, the forests will be devided into five classes.

1. Extensive areas, covered with trees, called "Second or Third growth." The entire or almost entire disappearance of this kind of forests is naturally and unavoidably a question of the near future. Each order, family and species of trees has a time when it comes to maturity, after which it must die. If the deciduous trees have been cut down before reaching their maturity, the stumps or roots will send fourth new shoots which will in turn grow into trees, and until the original stump has reached maturity of the first tree cut down, no matter how often these shoots may be cut, others will grow to take their places. But just, or at least nearly as soon as the stump has arrived at maturity, the formation of young shoots at once ceases and parent and offspring die together. The absurdity that cutting of succesive growths can be carried on for an unlimited period is fully apparent. It is not in unison with the workings of nature, consequently these forests will disappear.

2. Another class will occupy our attention, namely : those whose ranks are being annually thinned to supply our every day wants for timber and fuel. Their roots and stumps when not too old naturally send fourth new shoots, but very seldom do they grow to any size, as the cattle which are constantly grazing in these woods eat up all the young sprouts, <is fast as they appear above the stumps and ground, and by their continual tramping over the ground, render it very hard, while at the same time owing to the scattered condition of trees, the winds are constantly blowing away the few leaves, which would otherwise remain as the only natural fertilizer.

3. Another large forest area consists of portions of woodland situated in swamps and marshes. These frequently present the appearance of primeval forests, on account of a few large trees which grow there on little elevations while by far the larger part, they are worthless shrubs. On clos^ examination we find that even the larger trees have trunks which are decayed within and are therefore of little value excej)t for fuel. A sudden drainage of such places would inevitably cause the death of all trees there situated as they have not formed latge roots, but only such as would reach the waters surface, and consequently would not receive enough nourishment but should the drainage be earefully and gradually done, the roots would find their way deeper into the earth while searching for moisture, and at the same time the area will be greatly improved, as the organic deposits are often a yard in thickness, but are not in a condition to be digested by the roots of trees while under water, owing to an excess of moisture. Where drainage is possible, these forests must make room for meadows, and be sides forests to fulfil their mission in regard to climate, moisture, &c. should be situated on hig'a land instead of in swamps, where their effect will be damaging to the surrounding country. ^

4. The extensive regions covered with evergreen forests of spruce and pine, from which have come in times past, and whence still we receive our supplies of that invaluable article, "pine lumber." While walking through the ranks of those once beautiful forests, the forester's heart is filled with "-rief at seeing the unsystematic and unappreciated manner in which these grand gifts of nature have been treated. Those forests should have been divided into squares by roads or avenues when first openings were made in them, which roads should have been kept clear of rubbish and hio-h grass, to prevent, in a measure, the spread of fires, which have at different times, done such damage there, and have destroyed a vast amount of property. In five or ten years the fine forests, at least those in the settled portions, will belong to the things of the past.

5. The last class consists of those fine forests where as many healthy timber trees stand and grow as the condition of the soil and the best management can produce, such as will readily yield from seventy to eighty cords of wood to the acre, at the age of eighty years. In large forests which have been left untouched are usually found large openings which have existed either from the beginning, or have been made by trees that fell from old age, to make room for others which will rise to take their places. It is evident from the law of nature, that by no means can all the trees in these forests be healthy. Same old feeble and decaying trunks remain standing, being assisted by thrifty trees in their immediate vicinity. When these at last give way, in their fall to the earth, they must crush many of the young trees, leaving them behind in a more or less unhealthy state. If these forests could be left untouched, they would certainlj take care of themselves, as nature always heals the wounds she makes.

Chapter IV. Forests Serve As Natures Agents To Fulfil Her Plank

If we observe nature with the eye of experience and knowing her eternal and unchanging laws and see how the links in her chain fit one into the other ; how the presence of each and every one is necessary to the whole system, we come to the conclusion that she needs for her use in her great laboratory all created things, great, small, solid, liquid or gaseous, vegetable, animal and mineral, and that they must be there for her service at the proper moment so that she may be enabled by means of those agencies to accomplish all her plans. For we know that what she connot produce now, she will in a thousand or million years if her agents are not disturbed. Forests are living bodies, composed of separate existences, each forming a minature chemical labaratory of itself and therefore nature's most necea. sary and useful servants and serve as agents in carrying out her plans.

1. Forests beautify the earth and improve the character of its inhabitants. That man is influenced by his surroundings is* well known and in the present case how easy it is to note the difference between the dark, and meloneholy expression of individuals who have been grown up among somber pines, and the cheerful, smiling countenances of those whose youth has been spent in bright, deciduous forests.

2. Forests help to sustain the relative proportion of the component properties of atmospheric air and purify it from unhealthy substances o,nd obnoxious gases, since they inhale the carbonic acid gas, which has been exhaled by the animal creation, and exhale, instead, oxigen, absolutely necessary for animal existence, and most assuredly do they also absorb great quantities of the unhealthy matter contained in the atmospheric air, otherwise people living in forests would not be so healthy.

3. Extensive forests prevent sudden and extreme changes in teinpcratur of the adjacent open country, as the air under the sheltering tree tops cannot be affected by heat or cold, like that in the unsheltered area. We therefore have inclose proximity to each other, two bodies of air, different in temperature, and for that reason, also differing in weight. There will then be a constant exchange going on between the air of the protected woodlands and that in open fields, since the warmer, light air will be forced continually to take those places which are deserted by the colder and heavier air. This change goes on until the air in both sections is so intermingled as to possess the same temperature and consequently the same specific gravity.

4. Abundant forests effect climate by regulating the moisture and electricity of the atmosphere, and in so doing, preventing protracted drought, or a superabundance of rain, and hindering those fearful electric tempests which are the curse of sparcely wooded countries. In most parts of the United States the yearly rain-fall, could it be evenly distributed throughout the seasons, is amply sufficient to supply all the needs of the animal and vegetable creation. The forests serve as reservoirs for the surplus water, for it is well known that owing to the slow evaporation of water under the shelter of trees, the air coming therefrom is always moist, even when that in the open field is dry. For this reason, more delicate and finer crops can be raised in the vicinity of forests than in exposed places, since some times in the long intervals between rainfall, this moisture-laden air is constantly refreshing the suffering plants, which otherwise wither away. Trees, and especially large forests, are continually drawing to themselves the electricity contained in the air and clouds, and conducting it to the earth, thus stopping undue accumulation and rendering less liable tearful electric storms. It follows as a natural consequence that forests supply the springs, rivers and brooks with water, prevent the washing of the soil from fields, and hinder those heavy floods, which in late years are of so frequent occurance.

5. The forests serve as a protection against grasshoppers, as in the shade of trees their eggs cannot be hatched, since they need the open, dry prairie. Prof. Marsh, in the Manual of Minnesota Forester association' says: '-It is only since the felling of the forests of Asia Minor and Cyrene' that the locust has become so fearfully destructive in those countries."

6. Forests supply us with fuel and material for building and other purposes. Their value in this direction can hardly be estimated, but the carlessness with which the American people regard this, is conclusive evidence that they have but little thought of the intrinsic value of forests at the present time.

7. In a paper read before the Public Health Association, Dr. Geo. L. Andrew reached the conclusion: "That forests and tree belts are of undoubted value in preventing the dissemination of malaria," and, "that trees are of a positive sanitary value."

8. The forests formerly supplied us with game and fur-bearing animals, but they are gradually becoming less, as the forests are yearly reduced in extent imitations are substituted for real fur.

9. The forest furnishes many more useful and important articles, viz: Bark, for tanning and medical purposes, turpentine, resin, wild honey, nuts of all kinds, roots, herbs and blossoms for medical use, &c.

Here then, we have two pictures. In the one we look in the future and see wide-spread desolation, an extended, treeless country, visited by destructive storms, by severe droughts, with its streams dried up. In the other, we see a charming landscape, a rich tertile country, a population enjoying all the blessings which flow from peace and plenty, ^nd so we must admit the necessity of commencing this great enterprise at once, and prosecuting it with vigor.

CHAPTER Y.

TREATMENT OP FORESTS SO FAR NOT DESTRUCTED.

Forests, which have from some reason or other, so for escaped destruction, may be classified in the following order:

1. Groves of trees of nearly uniform growth, a portion of them old and decaying, partly young and slim, but equaling the older trees in height, and where, since there is no undergrowth, free entrance is given to the rays of the sun and to the wind.

2. Groves of trees of second or third growth. These are found quite thrifty on rich soils, with a considerable amount of undergrowth, most of them being slender and of small dimensions, so that easy access is given to the sun and wind. Here as the leaves are being continually blown away, the soil is year by year growing poorer.

3. Evergreen trees interspersed with an undergrowth of smaller trees and shrubs.

4. Lines of trees along the banks of rivers, partly decayed, but of second growth, where they have been of easy access to farmers.

5. Scattered, low, scrubby trees, growing upon hills and mountains among which are often found bare spots, sometimes of the size of a half acre. These yield but little profit to the owner, but still they are scaled and recorded as forests, in the census.

6. Pine forests, into which great inroads have been made, and where the bare places produce only a few shrubs of a deciduous nature, the seeds of which have been blown and carried on from distant forests, and being stopped in their flight by the pines, have been deposited until an opportunity for germination was given them, which took place as soon as the original trees had been cut down.

—ID— a. FORESTS OP THE FIRST CLASS.

The soil, where these forests are growing is gradually losing its productive qualities, and the old trees are rapidly becoming poor and of little value. Before commencing to plant trees on any new acre is, cut down the old trees, and those which are apparently making no increase in growth, and leaving the young and thrifty standing, but in not so large a number as to shade the ground too much. Plant over the whole extent, the same as if no trees were left, so that in the future the undergrowth may be serviceable for fuel. For the overgrowth, use such trees as to not give too dense a shade, taking care in planting them among those which are intend. ed for fire wood, to set them at proper distances from each other. The best trees to use for timber or overwood, in such cases are Red, White and Burr Oak, Elm, Hackberry, Black, and White Walnut, White Birch and the Larch, (limited). The best trees for the undergrowth are such as will thrive well when shaded, and will sprout out again readily from the stump, after being cut off. Of these may be named : White Beech, Hophornbeam, Ironwood, Elm, Ash and Maple; also Linden, but this latter tree only where shading of the ground is the main object to be attained, as the wood is of little value for fuel.

After newlv planted trees have reached the age of twenty or thirty years, some can be selected for timber and the rest cut down. Care must be taken to cut as close to the ground as possible, so that the new shoots may come out close to the roots. If any of the original trees have reached maturity by this time, or are not gaining in size, they should also be cut down, and some of those which have been planted, left standing to fill their places. Such a forest should be so managed as to have the timber trees of all ages, so that it is not necessary to cut too many at one time. The following will be a guide as to how many of the trees be left standing:

An average tree, growing singly, will cover with its branches at the age of one hundred and twenty years, 226 square feet; when ninety years old, 132 square feet; at thirty, 64 square feet; at five years, 20 square feet; so that one hundred and ninety-two trees at the age of 120 years, will cover just an acre, while it will take three hundred and thirty 90-year-old trees, or 680 of an age of 30, to cover the same ground. These are supposed to be all grown as single trees, and having full growth, blanches and their tips just touching. As a rule, not more than three-tenths of the area should be covered by the branches of the overgrowth, when thirty years of age, and about one-half when the most of the trees have come to maturity. It should be mentioned, however, that the large timber trees may be and indeed should be pruned, and that the undergrowth, when too much crowded, should be thinned out.